Wealth effects on cross-border acquisition firms from emerging economies

Cross-border acquisitions (CBAs), as a corporate expansion strategy, are being espoused by emerging market firms (EMFs) to overcome their competitive disadvantage at the global level. The objective of this paper is to analyse the wealth effects of cross-border acquisition announcement on the acquiring firms from emerging economies during the period of 2001–17. Wealth effects have been measured in terms of short-term change in equity prices (investors' reaction) around the public announcement of 553 and 125 overseas acquisitions by Indian and Chinese listed firms respectively. The investors' reaction to the acquisition of a foreign target has been captured using the event study methodology. Further, a disaggregated analysis has been conducted to gauge the impact of various deal-specific factors, the legal structure of the target firm and the development status of the target country on the wealth creation potential of a cross-border acquisition.Both Indian and Chinese investors have responded favourably to the announcement of international acquisitions as exhibited in significant and positive average abnormal returns of 0.71% and 0.23% respectively on the event day. Further, it is revealing to note that investors in these economies differ widely with regard to their perception pertaining to the method of payment and acquisition strategy. At the same time, the extent of wealth creation is higher when acquired firms are based in developed economies possessing high quality resources and advanced technology along with better institutional and regulatory milieu; Indian as well as Chinese markets have experienced larger abnormal returns on acquiring advanced vis-à-vis developing market firms.     

Board experience and value creation in cross-border acquisitions: The role of acquirer and target country institutions

Our study investigates the effects of board acquisition experience on value creation in cross-border acquisitions and the dependence of this relationship on acquirer and target country institutions. We draw on cross-border acquisition research and institution-based corporate governance research to argue that the effect of board acquisition experience depends on the institutional characteristics of the acquirer and target countries and on cultural differences between these two countries. Based on 1775 cross-border acquisitions of U.S. and European acquirers, we show a positive effect of board acquisition experience on the announcement returns of cross-border acquisitions, which is even stronger when the target country’s takeover regulations are less friendly and when the target and acquirer countries are culturally more distant.     

Do cross-border mergers and acquisitions increase short-term market performance? The case of Chinese firms

Despite the new momentum in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As) by emerging market firms, we have a limited understanding of the impact of these activities. Drawing on signalling theory and the institution-based view, this paper examines the extent of stock market reactions to the announcement of cross-border M&A deals, based on an event study of a sample of Chinese firms during the period 2000–2012. The findings indicate that the announcement of cross-border M&As results in a positive stock market reaction; this effect is more significant in the mainland Chinese stock markets (Shanghai and Shenzhen) than that in the Hong Kong market. The shareholders of Chinese firms that acquire a target firm in a host country with a low level of political risk gain higher cumulative abnormal returns than those firms targeting companies in countries with a high level of political risk. The shareholders of Chinese state-owned enterprises experience lower abnormal returns compared with those of Chinese privately owned firms when engaging in cross-border M&A deals.     

Effects of board characteristics on post-acquisition performance: A study of cross-border acquisitions by firms in the manufacturing sector

Our study examines how acquiring firm board characteristics influence the performance of cross-border merger and acquisitions (CBMAs). It is based on a sample of 250 large transactions in the manufacturing sector undertaken by U.S. firms in 33 countries between 1991 and 2006. Our findings reveal that acquiring firms having a larger board and outside directors with greater influence exhibit superior post-acquisition shareholder value creation in CBMAs. In addition, our results indicate that acquiring firms with more dominant CEOs perform better in such acquisitions. From the standpoint of firms engaged in CBMAs, our findings suggest that they stand to benefit from having a larger board and influential outside directors who can diligently monitor and advise top management in undertaking CBMAs. Finally, acquiring firms need to recognize that the complexities and challenges generally associated with CBMAs may require dominant CEOs who can provide clear and unambiguous leadership during the pre- and post- acquisition process.     

Enhancing performance of cross-border mergers and acquisitions in developed markets: The role of business ties and technological innovation capability

This study examines the determinants of performance of cross-border mergers and acquisitions (cross-border M&As) in developed markets initiated by firms from emerging markets. Drawing on social network theory and organizational innovation literature, we hypothesize that business ties of the acquiring firm increase performance of cross-border M&As via enhancing the acquiring firm's technological innovation capability and that environmental turbulence strengthens this mediating model. Moreover, the interplay of cultural distance and technological innovation capability would decrease performance of cross-border M&As. To test the model, we collected data from 186 Chinese firms initiating cross-border M&As in developed markets. As predicted, we found that (1) technological innovation capability of the acquiring firm positively mediates the relationship between business ties and performance of cross-border M&As; (2) environmental turbulence positively moderates the relationship between business ties and technological innovation capability; and (3) cultural distance negatively moderates the relationship between technological innovation capability and performance of cross-border M&As.     

The stock market performance of exploration-oriented and exploitation-oriented cross-border mergers and acquisitions: Evidence from emerging market enterprises

This study builds on insights from mergers and acquisitions (M&A) studies and the perspective that stock market performance is affected by the M&A strategies of firms. Past studies show that acquisitions are an effective way to exploit existing knowledge and explore new possibilities. We argue that stock market performance can be a response to exploration/exploitation strategies in the context of cross-border M&As by emerging market multinationals. Based on cross-border M&A data of Chinese multinationals, we find that exploration-oriented acquisitions have worse stock market performance than exploitation-oriented acquisitions. Furthermore, we find support for our premise that acquiring firms can reduce the risk of exploration-oriented acquisitions by having more high-discretion slack resources or by maintaining a high level of equity share of the target firm. In addition, acquiring firms perform better if they conduct exploration-oriented acquisitions in related industries. Our results contribute to a better understanding of exploration and exploitation in the context of M&As.     

CEO Attributes,Board Composition,and Acquirer Value Creation: A Canadian Study

We examined CEO attributes, board composition, and ownership structure for their relationship to the share performance of the acquiring company around the acquisition announcement. Based on 273 acquisitions by Canadian firms from 1998 through 2002, we have shown that the levels of CEO and director ownership as well as the level of board independence were positively associated with the short‐term financial performance of the acquirer. Board size was negatively related to value creation. Finally, cash‐based deals and cross‐border transactions were also positively related to increases in shareholder wealth for the acquirer. Copyright © 2011 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managers as the bridge: How cultural friction influences the integration of cross-border mergers and acquisitions

Going beyond cultural distance, the present study adopts a more contextualized view of cultural friction to account for the “actual cultural contacts” in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (CBMAs), and meanwhile builds a case-based measure of cultural friction to quantitatively capture the country- and deal-level cultural differences between the acquirer and the target in each CBMA. Differing from the existing research that takes the influence of cultural differences on CBMA performance for granted, we highlight the importance of managers from the acquiring firm by theorizing that cultural friction between the acquirer and the target can shape acquiring managers' choice of managerial practices to complete the managerial tasks during integration, leading to different performance. In particular, we postulate a curvilinear relationship between the cultural friction and CBMA performance. By incorporating regulatory focus theory into our analytical framework, we further hypothesize how this curve is shaped by managers’ regulatory focus, a key motivational trait at the firm management level. Using a sample of 304 completed CBMAs conducted by Chinese listed firms, our empirical results verify the U-shaped relationship between cultural friction and the CBMA integration performance, and suggest that this relationship is flattened by acquiring managers’ prevention focus.     

Board diversity and firm performance: The role of business group affiliation

There is little consensus globally on the relationship between board diversity and firm performance. Using the resource dependence and agency views, this paper examines how business group affiliation influences the relationship between board diversity and firm performance as a contextual/confounding factor. Based on data for listed firms in India, we find that board demographic diversity is positively associated with the firm performance (Tobin’s Q) of standalone firms, but this association is negative for group-affiliated firms. This negative effect of group affiliation is confirmed in a test based on a novel measure of firm performance using the stock market reaction to the announcement of mergers and acquisitions. For both measures of performance, we show that business group affiliation impairs the positive firm value effects of board demographic diversity. These findings imply that the relationship between board diversity and firm performance requires re-examination in the many countries where group affiliation is common. Our results also provide evidence of a new cost of group affiliation and show in a fresh context that cross-country studies should account for international variations in ownership and institutional structures.     

National economic disparity and cross-border acquisition resolution

This paper explores the effects of national economic disparity on the completion or abandonment of cross-border acquisitions by combining behavioral perspectives of risky decision making and theories of organizational learning. Using a sample of 2445 cross-border acquisitions announced between 1985 and 2008, we show that an acquisition is less likely to be completed when the acquirer is from a more developed country vis-a-vis the target than when the acquirer is from a less developed country. Furthermore, the higher the economic development level of the acquirer’s country relative to that of the target, the less likely the deal is to be completed. We also find that the time elapsed between the acquisition announcement and completion dates is shorter as the economic development level of the acquirer’s country relative to that of the target is higher.     

Effects of foreign acquisitions on financial constraints,productivity and investment in R&D of target firms in China

This paper examines whether foreign acquisitions lessen financial constraints, improve investment in research & development (R&D) and productivity of the target firms in China based on a sample of 914 cross-border mergers and acquisitions (CBM&A) over the period of 1994–2011. Using investment to cash-flow sensitivity to measure financial constraints, we find that foreign acquisitions in China are associated with a reduction of target firms’ financial constraints, irrespective of the ownership type of the target firm. However, the extent of financial constraint reduction is pronounced for non-SOEs compared to state-owned enterprises (SOEs). This study also provides evidence that foreign acquisitions improve Chinese target firms’ productivity and investment in R&D.     

Control mechanisms of MNEs and absorption of foreign technology in cross-border acquisitions

This study investigates the impact of control mechanisms exercised by MNEs on knowledge (technology) absorption in cross-border acquisitions (CBAs). The empirical examination was undertaken in Korea, which is a newly industrialized emerging market, where knowledge acquisition from foreign investing firms is particularly important to leapfrog into advanced economies. We find that most of the control mechanisms (i.e., ‘staffing the top management positions’, ‘participation in the policy making and planning process’, ‘interaction of the subsidiary's top management with the MNE’ and ‘participation of foreign expatriates in key functional areas’) have a positive association with organizational learning. In addition, we also uncover that provision of training programs for a fixed period creates more synergy when it is combined with constant and continuous education in daily activities. This study contributes significantly to the body of control mechanism literature and the understanding of CBAs, and also provides practical implications for MNEs intending to enter foreign markets by partially purchasing the equity shares of local firms.     

Bidders’ gains and family control of private target firms

This paper examines the announcement returns of bidders acquiring private firms owned by families versus the returns of bidders acquiring non-family controlled private firms. The sample consists of 391 acquisitions of private targets in seven continental European countries for the period 1997–2008. We find evidence that bidder's cumulative announcement returns (CARs) are lower when they acquire family controlled targets compared to non-family controlled targets. We show that this result holds regardless of whether the deal is paid with shares or cash and whether or not the bidding firm is also privately owned. Moreover, the result is independent of the size of the acquisition relative to the size of the acquiring firm. Our findings are consistent with the notion that the bidder has to pay a higher price in order to convince the family owners to sell in return for giving up private benefits.     

Credibility of corporate announcements and market reaction: evidence from Canadian share repurchase programs

Do market participants evaluate the credibility of a firm's share repurchase announcement based on the firm's share repurchase history? Using a sample of 1,507 share repurchase programs for firms listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange from 1994 to 2005, we find that 69% of firms fail to acquire the target number of shares specified at announcement and many firms fail to repurchase any shares. We develop credibility indices and find a positive relationship between current announcement abnormal returns and completion credibility of previous announcements. We conclude that the market prices completion credibility of past share repurchase announcements in reacting to current repurchase announcements. Copyright © 2010 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Institutional determinants of ownership stake in cross-border acquisitions in Africa: The moderating role of geographic distance

We look at how emerging markets' institutional features affect ownership stake in cross-border acquisitions (CBAs) within Africa. Particularly, we show that the presence of shared colonial history between the home and host country and the extent of fractionalization distance and formal institutional distance influence the acquiring firm's decision regarding its ownership stake in the target. Moreover, we show that geographic distance between the home and host country, by augmenting uncertainty faced by acquiring firms, moderates the relationship between these institutional features and ownership stake. We test our hypotheses in a sample of 341 intra-Africa CBAs from 2001 to 2016. Generally, we find that greater ex ante uncertainty and ex post costs increase ownership stake. Specifically, greater geographic distance strengthens the positive relationship between shared colonial history and ownership stake and reverses the negative relationship between formal institutional distance and ownership stake. As for fractionalization distance, the relationship is more nuanced and needs to be further studied. We contribute to advance research on south–south CBAs in general, particularly within Africa, as well as to extend hostage theory in foreign market entry strategies in and from emerging markets.     

Foreign acquisitions by Chinese firms: A strategic intent perspective

This article presents a strategic intent perspective (SIP) to analyze the foreign acquisitions made by Chinese firms. It suggests that Chinese firms strategically use cross-border acquisitions to achieve goals, such as acquiring strategic capabilities to offset their competitive disadvantages and leveraging their unique ownership advantages, while making use of institutional incentives and minimizing institutional constraints. The SIP is supported by the evidence from three firms that we studied, where dozens of interviews were conducted, including the one with the founder of Lenovo. This study contributes to extant international business theories by incorporating the SIP to examine internationalization strategies of firms from developing countries.     

Paying for cross-border acquisitions: The impact of prior acquirers’ decisions

By examining the premiums paid by acquiring firms in cross-border acquisitions (CBAs), this study aims to determine why they might rely on prior premium decisions in the host market rather than rigorous assessments of the deal. An information-based imitation framework offers an explanation for foreign acquirers’ premium decisions. The developed hypotheses are tested with 2350 CBAs that occurred during 1995–2008. The results show that the premium paid by acquiring firms in CBAs relates positively to prior premiums paid by foreign acquirers in that host country. This imitation behavior is influenced by both organization- and offering-level characteristics.     

Impact of the female board members and gaps in linguistic gender marking on cross-border M&A

This research focuses on how the gender composition of a multinational board and linguistic gender marking gaps between home and host countries impact the extent of cross-border M&A activity. We argue, both theoretically and empirically, that the presence of female directors impacts cross-border M&As. Using an instrumental variable approach, we demonstrate that this effect is causal. Innovatively, we measure gaps in linguistic gender marking between home and host countries, and find that larger gaps also reduce cross-border M&As. Finally, we show that small gaps in linguistic gender marking moderate the effect of female presence in boardroom on cross-border M&As. ‎     

The function-specific microfoundations of dynamic capabilities in cross-border mergers and acquisitions

In mergers and acquisitions, the acquiring firm must combine two firms’ resources and capabilities so that the outcome yields value. In individual firms, the marketing & sales, and R&D functions have typically developed intertwined and complex relationships over time. These multifaceted dependencies may obscure the integration of the firms and their functions. In order to reveal to what extent cross-functional relationships determine the success or failure of an acquisitions, we have made one of the first attempts to study merging firms’ function-specific capabilities, underlying microfoundations, and their cross-functional relationships during the integration process—instead of focusing on acquisition capabilities as such. We use longitudinal data from two cross-border acquisitions between US and Finnish SMEs. Our results indicate that major differences between merging firms’ cross-functional microfoundations—that is, their structures, processes, routines, and skills—might either enforce or erode the seemingly promising synergies at the product and market levels, depending on managerial awareness of their nature.     

Cross-Border Mergers & Acquisitions Policy in Service Markets

We provide facts showing that in service markets: (i) restrictions on foreign direct investment (FDI) are under reform, (ii) cross-border Mergers & Acquisitions dominate as the entry mode of FDI, and (iii) there is often a high market concentration. Based on these facts, we present a model for analyzing cross-border merger and acquisition policy in liberalized service markets taking into account efficiency and market power effects. Our findings suggest that a merger policy, but not a discriminatory policy towards foreigners, seems warranted. Moreover, policies ensuring competition for domestic target firms seem warranted. In this vein, harmonization of the EU takeover regulations may particularly benefit assets owners in countries with many target firms.