Deriving performance indicators from models of multipurpose shopping behavior

Multinomial logit models have been widely used for predicting and analyzing spatial shopping behavior of consumers. The models typically used in applied settings do not account for impacts of multipurpose shopping behavior on retail system performance. This study focuses on a recent multipurpose shopping model that has favorable properties for use in applied settings. The purpose of the study is to derive indicators of center performance and travel demands from this model. An application shows how the multipurpose model can be estimated based on survey data and which information can be derived from it. Comparison with a conventional single-purpose shopping model indicates that spatial agglomeration impacts as predicted by the model can have substantial meaning for retail impact studies. Therefore, it is concluded that the more complicated models have the potential of improving information in retail planning and analysis.     

Modelling pedestrian go-home decisions: A comparison of linear and nonlinear compensatory,and conjunctive non-compensatory specifications

This paper presents the main findings of an application of several models to predict the go-home decision of pedestrians in shopping streets. Two compensatory multinomial logit models, one with a linear utility function of time and the other with a nonlinear utility function of time, and a non-compensatory conjunctive model are specified. Data about pedestrian behaviour in a major shopping street in Beijing served as input for model estimation. The conjunctive model performs best, suggesting that pedestrians use simplifying heuristics to decide when to end the shopping trip and go home. In addition, the nonlinear multinomial logit model outperforms the linear model, indicating that marginal utility of time decreases with increasing time.     

The impact of the deregulation of retail hours on shopping trip patterns in a mall hierarchy: an application of the RASTT model to the Sydney Project (1980–1998) and the global vacant shop problem

The impact of the deregulation of trading hours on trips to planned shopping centres is studied using the retail aggregate space-time trip (RASTT) model, where changes in consumer spatial behaviour are analysed at three malls in seven year periods (1980/82, 1988/89, 1996/98) in Sydney, Australia (The Sydney Project). After effective deregulation in 1992, the subsequent repeat samples in a hierarchy of shopping malls show significant structural change in only the afternoon samples at community and regional planned shopping centres. The results show a substantial increase in the attractiveness of planned shopping centres over traditional retail centres, where less consumers are shopping locally. There was a shift in spatial demand towards Sunday for ‘small centre’ behaviour and the appearance of high frequency regular trips to the regional planned centre. The RASTT model suggests that these changes in the structure of consumer behaviour are a result of moving the time boundary to seven days-a-week shopping at these centres. These structural changes may account for the on-going long term vacant shop problem that has manifested itself under shopping hour liberalisation in south east Australian, British and Canadian traditional retail hierarchies in the 1990s.     

Online grocery shopping: the impact of shopping frequency on perceived risk

Online grocery shopping has enjoyed strong growth and it is predicted this channel will continue to grow exponentially in the coming years. While online shopping has attracted an abundance of research interest, examinations of online grocery shopping behaviour are only now emerging. Shopping online for groceries differs considerably from general online shopping due to the perishability and variability of the product, and frequency of the shopping activity. Two salient gaps underpin this research into online grocery shopping. This study responds to calls to investigate the online shoppers’ experience in the context of online purchasing frequency. Second, this study examines the mediating effect of perceived risk between trust and online repurchase intention of groceries. An online survey was employed to collect data from shoppers who were recruited from a multi-channel grocery e-retailer’s database. The online survey, comprising 16 reflective validated scale items, was sent to 555 frequent and infrequent online grocery shoppers. Results find that while customer satisfaction predicts trust for both infrequent and frequent online grocery shoppers, perceived risk fully mediates the effect of trust on repurchase intentions for infrequent online grocery shoppers. Furthermore, path analysis reveals that the developed behavioural model is variant across both groups of shoppers. Theoretically, we provide a deeper understanding of the online customer experience, while gaining insight into two shopper segments identified as being important to grocery e-retailers. For managers, this study tests an online customer behavioural model with actual purchasing behaviour and identifies the continued presence of perceived risk in grocery e-retailing, regardless of purchase frequency or experience.     

A comparison of online and offline gender and goal directed shopping online

The aim of this paper is to model the effect of the consumers’ perceptions of their offline and online gendered behaviour on online utilitarian shopping motivation and purchase intentions. We hypothesise that when consumers shop online, their behaviour is mediated by two gendered behaviours, namely offline and online. To test this hypothesis, 515 usable responses were collected in face-to-face interviews. The conceptual model was tested with confirmatory factors analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM) across five product categories. Our findings show that the effect of a consumer's perception of their gendered behaviour offline vs. online on online utilitarian shopping motivation and purchase intentions is significantly different. In particular we found that utilitarian shopping motivation online has a significant effect on purchase intentions online mediated by gender (online) overall: strongly for females but not for males. Conversely, utilitarian shopping motivation online has a significant effect on purchase intentions online mediated by gender (offline) for males but not overall and for females.     

The effect of multi-purpose shopping on pricing and location strategy for grocery stores

Though it is a well-accepted fact that consumers indulge in multi-purpose shopping, most previous models of store choice assume that grocery shopping trips are single-purpose trips. This paper provides the first empirical analysis of multi-purpose shopping using data on actual shopping trips. A latent class factor analytic logit model is proposed, which provides a representation of the market structure of grocery store competition, while integrating; multi-purpose shopping, retail pricing format and location strategy. We conclude that incorporating multi-purpose shopping trips provides a better understanding of the competitive market structure, and discuss the managerial implications for the selection of marketing strategies.     

An empirical analysis of buying behaviour in UK high street womenswear retailing using the Dirichlet model

Clothes shopping behaviour is thought to be characterized by a high degree of segmentation but there appears to be little previous research to validate these assumptions. In addition, the belief that clothes shoppers are fickle has led to scepticism regarding the ability of empirical models to analyse consumer behaviour in this sector. However, an empirical analysis of 'Fashiontrak' data compiled by Taylor Nelson Sofres plc using the Dirichlet model highlights regular and predictable patterns of consumer behaviour; there appears to be little difference between how shoppers frequent womenswear retailers and how they buy fast-moving consumer goods brands despite major structural differences between the two (such as purchase frequency, pricing levels, durability of the product). The implications that these observations have on customer loyalty, marketing planning, store patronage and store location and performance planning are discussed.     

An empirical examination of perceived retail crowding,emotions, and retail outcomes

Crowded retail shopping conditions can result from many shoppers being present during a given time and at a given place, as well as from limited customer space owing to inadequate floor layout design and allocation of fixtures and merchandise on the floor. This study investigated the effects of the perception of human crowding and spatial crowding on consumer shopping behavior through mediation of emotions of pleasure, arousal, dominance, and a feeling of satisfaction in an international market. A store intercept survey was conducted on 554 hypermarket consumers in Taipei, Taiwan. The proposed structural relationships among perceived retail crowding, emotions, and retail outcomes were analyzed by using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling with Lisrel 8.54.

The results of the study demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed model in delineating the relationships of retail crowding-emotions-satisfaction-retail outcomes under actual retail environments. The study found that while human crowding perceived during shopping at a hypermarket store positively impacted shoppers' feelings rather than negatively, spatial crowding perceived due to high spatial density negatively impacted shoppers' positive emotions. The findings supported the view that retail crowding affected various shopping activities through influencing positive emotions and summary feelings of satisfaction. Managerial implications of the study were also discussed.     

The shopping list in goal-directed shopping: scale development and validation

This paper aims to develop and validate a shopping list scale in a goal-directed shopping context based on three complementary study phases (and literature review): shopper interviews (exploratory stage to identify the items and dimensions), a pilot study with 162 respondents for scale purification, and a refined questionnaire administered to 213 respondents (to establish reliability, convergent, discriminant and nomological validity). An exploratory factor analysis shows that the items load onto four factors: memory aid, money controller, shopping controller, and deviation controller. We performed confirmatory factor analysis to test the model and check for reliability and validity of the anticipated scale. The model fit and reliability levels are acceptable, as are the convergent and discriminant validities of the scale. The scale is a second-order factor, thus satisfying nomological validity. The shopping list scale should be of interest to researchers and retail managers in exploring factors and outcomes of goal-directed shopper behaviour.     

Adoption and usage of online shopping: An empirical analysis of the characteristics of “buyers” “browsers” and “non-internet shoppers”

We empirically study and model how socio-demographic variables, attitudes and beliefs towards Internet shopping affect both the adoption decision and usage of the online shopping channel. Previous research on online shopping focuses on whether to adopt online shopping. This paper extends this research by delineating non-adopting individuals into non-browsing and browsing. Our results demonstrate that there is a fundamental behavioural difference between three forms of behaviour: that is, those that purchase online, those that browse online but then purchase in-store and those that do not shop online at all.     

Route factors influencing trust and attitude toward TV shopping

Television (TV) shopping has notably changed the way people shop today. Due to the high uncertainty and risk associated with TV shopping transactions, trust is crucial to facilitating the adoption of TV shopping. Drawing upon the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), this study examined the effect of route factors on trust and attitude toward TV shopping. While media richness, host interaction, and price fairness act as central cues, ease of payment acts as a peripheral cue. This study employed structural equation modeling, and the sample consisted of 460 TV home shoppers in Taiwan. The results indicated that trust and attitude develop through a dual route that includes a central route and peripheral route. Trust is an important mediator influencing the relationship between route factors and attitude. Moreover, user experience moderates the relationships in the model. Therefore, this study advanced the previous knowledge of the ELM in the context of TV shopping.     

An empirical analysis of online shopping adoption in Beijing,China

The Internet is a global communication medium that is increasingly being used worldwide as an innovative tool for marketing goods and services. At the end of 2010, Internet users in China reached 420 million. However, online shopping in China is not widely practiced and organisations investing in B2C online shopping need to understand the factors that affect Chinese consumers′ online buying behaviour. This research develops a theoretical research model as a framework to identify the key decision factors influencing Chinese consumers′ to shop, or not to shop online. A self-administered questionnaire was used to gather information from 435 respondents in Beijing, China. The empirical analysis identifies and ranks seven important decision factors: perceived risk, consumer resources, service quality, subjective norms, product variety, convenience, and website factors. All of these decision factors impact on Chinese consumers′ adoption of online shopping. Moreover, managerial implications and recommendations are also presented.     

A comparison of online and offline consumer behaviour: An empirical study on a cinema shopping context

The main objective of this study is to analyse online vs. offline differences in consumer behaviour. To this end, through a proposal applied to cinemas in shopping centres, this study considers values and lifestyles as major factors that influence behaviours and intentions. The partial least squares (PLS) approach is used to evaluate the model. A multi-group analysis is conducted to compare consumers who buy tickets online with those who do so at a box office. We consider 391 valid cases. The results obtained show a link between the use of technology and its effects on behaviour. The relationships between values and behaviour as well as between behaviour and future intent are stronger among online consumers than the effects of lifestyles on behaviour. We consider relevant theoretical and empirical perspectives and offer critical recommendations of use to shopping centre managers, movie theatres, and intermediaries of this sector.     

A new theoretical framework of shopping motives and channel preference behaviour in the digital era

The unprecedented dissemination of digital technology has changed people's psychology including their shopping behaviour in the last two decades. Smartphone led digital applications and advancements have disrupted consumers' shopping processes, purchase decisions, and priorities as well as increased their exposure, aspirations and expectations inevitably. Therefore, it is imperative to examine the relevance of various elements of shopping motives holistically. Therefore, the present study aims to develop a new theoretical framework based on significant elements of shopping motives for physical products in the digital technology era. For this purpose, an exploratory study, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modelling (SEM) were used. EFA generated five latent factors by grouping 18 independent variables. CFA validated latent factor construct and measured model fit. SEM visualized the path analysis and portrayed the pattern of relations between latent factors into a single factor structural model (consumer shopping motives framework). Results show that consumers' shopping priorities are changing as 3 conventional variables (‘role-playing’, ‘status and authority’, and ‘pleasure of bargaining’) became obsolete and 3 new (‘anywhere and any-time shopping’, ‘safe and secure digital transaction’, and ‘unbiased reviews and ratings”) came into existence prominently. The format and perspective of ‘fun, entertainment and recreation’ ‘social interaction and communication’, and ‘exposure to new and latest trends' have been changing. Consumers are becoming more technology-dependent in their shopping processes and purchase decisions. The validation of the framework on channel preference behaviour revealed that consumers largely prefer offline channels for the fulfilment of risk-free and social sub-motives, and online channels for convenience sub-motive. Therefore, broad structural change and clarity, specification of priorities, a shift in the format and perspective of few elements of shopping motives, intrinsic passion for the use of digital technology and web service in the shopping journey, and simplification of antecedents for growing popularity of multi-channel shopping paradigm are the key novelty of this study.     

空间相互作用与购物中心建设规模的确定

近两年我国大中城市兴起了建设购物中心的热潮,通过空间和空间的相互作用,形成了影响购物 中心建设规模的各种重要因素。用确定购物中心规模的简单模型,结合实际.情况再对模型进行修正,这 样能对中国大中城市购物中心的建设起着一定的借鉴意义。     

How national culture impacts teenage shopping behavior: Comparing French and American consumers

The global teen market has significant spending power and an important impact on the world economy. However, much remains unknown about the social motivations of teenage consumers and cross-national cultural differences in teenage shopping. This research studies teenage shopping motivations in two nations: the U.S., which is a highly individualistic national culture with low power distance and low uncertainty avoidance, and France, which is perhaps a somewhat more collectivist, more inter-dependent national culture with high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance. This research samples 570 teenage consumers. Susceptibility to peer influence (SPI) drives teenage consumer shopping in France, while both need for uniqueness (NFU) and SPI motivate teenage shopping in the U.S.     

A multi-category customer base analysis

Customer base analysis is an essential tool to measure and develop relationships with customers. While various models have been proposed in a noncontractual setting, they focus primarily on analyzing transactional patterns associated with a single product category or a firm-level activity, such as the times at which purchases are made at a particular retailer. This research proposes a modeling framework for customer base analysis in a multi-category context. Specifically, we model the time between a customer's purchases at the firm and the product categories that comprise her shopping basket arising from multi-category choice decisions. The proposed model uses a latent space approach that parsimoniously captures the dynamics of multi-category shopping behavior due to the interplay between purchase timing and shopping basket composition. We also account for interdependence among multiple categories, temporal dependence across category choices, and latent customer attrition. Using category-level transaction data, we show that the proposed model offers excellent fit and performance in predicting customer purchase patterns across multiple categories. The forecasts and inferences afforded by our model can assist managers in tailoring marketing efforts across categories.     

Overcoming data limitations for store choice modelling.: Exploiting retail chain choice data by means of aggregate logit models

This paper reports on research aimed at exploiting certain data sources for store choice modelling purposes. Many databases, such as some consumer panels, only record the firm chosen by consumers and not the specific store at which they shop. Four alternative approaches are proposed in order to use this raw information for studying patronage determinants at store level: (a) an ordinary logit model in which chain utility is averaged across stores within; (b) an ordinary logit model in which the choice set is assumed to be composed of the nearest store for each chain; (c) a straightforward application of an aggregate logit model; and (d) the application of an aggregate logit model with choice sets spatially bounded by a distance threshold representing the maximum distance that consumers are willing to travel for shopping. The models are empirically tested in the context of spatial choice behaviour. Goodness of fit indicators reveal that only models (b), (c) and (d) acceptably represent competitive interaction dynamics. As performance of (b) is slightly better than that of (c), it seems that a priori the ‘nearest store assumption’ is a better approach than the modelling of aggregate choice structures. However, when the latter approach is applied with more reliable choice sets, as suggested in model (d), the best performance is achieved. The results thus lead us to think that the aggregate logit model is a promising methodology for solving the problem at issue, but subject to an appropriate definition of the consumers’ choice sets. In fact, such an approach provides a more suitable modelling solution to the extent that the saturation and the intra-firm store heterogeneity become more intense, because these situations presumably imply that consideration sets include several stores from the same chain.     

A cross cultural study of gender differences in omnichannel retailing contexts

This research examines gender difference in omnichannel experience in modern shopping malls, combining personal, physical and virtual encounters. It proposes a new theoretical model: the gender-based shopping mall omnichannel experience model. Data was collected using 1139 questionnaires completed by millennial shoppers in the United Kingdom and United Arab Emirates. Data was analysed using partial least squares. The results showed a shift in males shopping behaviour as they pay more attention to peer interaction on social platforms, service excellence, convenience, diversity and personalisation in shopping malls than female shoppers, while aesthetics and privacy are more important for female shoppers.