Overcoming barriers to the implementation of car parking charges at UK workplaces

Charging employees to park at their places of work is a transport policy measure advocated by the UK government as a means of reducing car commuting and hence achieving the twin objectives of reducing congestion and combating environmental degradation, especially in urban areas. The empirical effects of employee parking charges have been analysed (see for example [Willson, R.W., Shoup, D.C., 1990. Parking subsidies and travel choices: assessing the evidence. Transportation 17, 141–157; Department for Transport (DfT), 2002. Making travel plans work: report on case studies. London: DfT (Also available at www.local-transport.dft.gov.uk/travelplans/guides/index.htm)]). There is, however, a dearth of literature examining the practicalities of employee car parking charge implementation in those few organisations that haves done so. Based on empirical studies of 11 UK workplaces, this paper examines the reasons for and the practicalities of implementation and concludes by considering the barriers to the wider adoption of this policy.     

The impact of transport on social exclusion processes with specific emphasis on road user charging

This paper looks at the ways in which transport can impact on social exclusion processes by examining how the introduction of road user charging may affect residents of Bristol. It gives an overview of the concept of transport and social inclusion/exclusion, describes key themes emerging from DfT-funded research conducted in the city and reflects on the importance of consideration of these themes to the policy's successful implementation. By exploring road user charging from both collective and individual perspectives, the paper illustrates how this congestion charging policy could promote social inclusion.     

Travel plans: do they work?

This paper reviews the evidence that travel plans have their intended effect, which is to reduce the number of employees commuting alone by car to their place of work. It first outlines the policy background for travel plans in the UK, and reasons for their implementation. It then presents a conceptual model of travel plan development, which is used to analyse the development of travel plans in a number of case studies.The paper then goes on to consider evidence of the scale of the adoption of travel plans by organisations in the UK, and then estimates their impact on levels of travel nationally. It then seeks to explain how take up and hence the effect of travel plans could be made more widespread. It concludes that there is clear evidence that travel plans have an effect at the site level, and potential for a system-wide effect. However, Government must be clear about its objectives for travel plans, if this potential is to be achieved.     

Road pricing in National Parks: a case study in the Yorkshire Dales National Park

Road user charging is typically associated with urban contexts, however, congestion at rural attractions is of increasing concern and road user charging may be considered as a suitable policy instrument. This paper investigates the issue of rural road pricing and presents the results of a survey of car-based visitors to Upper Wharfedale in the Yorkshire Dales National Park, which explores the potential impacts on mode and destination choice of a road user charging scheme, combined with a park and ride alternative. The scheme was found to be acceptable to 68% of the respondents, with nearly half opting to park and ride. The results are of particular interest in the light of the 1998 Transport White Paper that encourages pilot road user charging schemes in rural areas.     

Looking over the horizon: Transport and reduced CO2 emissions in the UK by 2030

Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO₂ emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO₂ reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO₂ reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative.     

Market- and non-market-based approaches to traffic-related pollution: the perception of key stakeholders

Market-based instruments have long been advocated on efficiency and welfare grounds, particularly by academics as a means of dealing with congestion and traffic-related pollution in urban areas. This paper details a survey of key UK stakeholders, namely local politicians, local transport officials and UK transport academics undertaken in order to ascertain their opinions with respect to a range of market- and non-market-based approaches aimed at dealing with the effects of road traffic in urban areas of the UK. The findings deal with how effective the key stakeholders perceive various market- and non-market based approaches to be as part of a package of measures, in dealing with the problem. The paper also details opinion with respect to acceptance of such measures and highlights areas of commonality between effectiveness and the acceptance of these measures. Finally, the paper draws a number of conclusions.     

Government plans for lorry road-user charging in the UK: a critique and an alternative

The British government was planning to introduce a system of road-user charging for lorries in 2008. In July 2005, it decided to abandon these plans and incorporate the development of a charging scheme for trucks into a future road pricing system for all categories of traffic. This paper examines the objectives of the proposed lorry road-user charging scheme in the UK and argues that the government's plans for LRUC would have been inappropriate. An alternative method of road-user charging for lorries is proposed which would meet the main objectives of LRUC at much lower cost, disruption and risk and act as an interim measure until it is possible, technically and politically, to introduce general road pricing in the UK.     

Planning for an unpredictable future: Transport in Great Britain in 2030

This paper describes a research study, which explores alternative future scenarios for Great Britain in the year 2030 and the implications these have for travel demand and transport provision. Five alternative future scenarios are represented in the GB national transport model and forecasts are obtained for trip making, traffic levels, congestion and emissions in 2030. For all scenarios it is expected that there will be significant traffic growth. Traffic growth is restricted most in scenarios including distance-based road charging on motorways and trunk roads. However, congestion and carbon dioxide emissions are most effectively limited in scenarios with congestion-based road charging, major improvements to urban public transport and investment in new fuel technologies and in improving engine efficiency.     

Do institutional structures matter? A comparative analysis of urban carbon management policies in the UK and Germany

The paper addresses the important question of how institutional structures matter to the delivery of climate change policy for urban transport. It examines the strategic goals, policy tools in operation and initial progress towards carbon emission reduction in seven cities across the UK and Germany where different institutional structures exist. The UK has the presence of a strong national carbon target and strong hierarchical national–local government relationships whilst Germany has a more integrated system of local transport provision in a context where local and regional government is stronger. Our findings show that the carbon agenda has made very little difference to what is happening on the ground in the cities. Across all sites, progress is being made but largely through technological improvements which are being almost completely offset by population growth. Even in the more integrated city environments there has not be an additional stimulus to manage the demand for travel.Contrary to previous research therefore, we cannot conclude that institutional structures are paramount in delivering effective carbon reduction policies. The institutional structures in the UK and in Germany are not perfectly aligned to carbon management but, given the cross policy impacts of most transport interventions, this is perhaps inevitable. We can clearly conclude however that “better” structures are not sufficient to achieve the implementation of more effective carbon policies. Whilst institutional structures must matter, it is the broader governance environment and the resources and politics involved in transport policy that currently seem to dominate the importance of the carbon agenda and implementation paths that emerge.     

Achieving genuinely dynamic road user charging: issues with a GNSS-based approach

A variety of approaches to road user charging (RUC) for reducing congestion and raising revenue to maintain and improve transport infrastructure is in place in many countries; examples of such RUC include: an Electronic Fee Collection System in Singapore, Cordon Pricing in Oslo City in Norway, Zoned Based Pricing in London and Distance-Based Pricing (also called Pay-As-You-Drive) in Germany and Switzerland. With the development of satellite technologies, the introduction of dynamic pricing becomes possible, affording an opportunity for RUC to fully reflect the ‘Polluter Pays Principle’. This paper provides critical and comparative assessments of existing road user charging (RUC) systems with reference to technological limitations and public and political acceptability. The paper then goes on to demonstrate a system architecture for a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) based dynamic road user charging system capable of considering dynamic variables. Finally we consider the feasibility of the proposed system in relation to technology readiness and public acceptability. We then consider some potential wider benefits from the introduction of a comprehensive system that could be highlighted to justify the cost of development and implementation as well as to improve public and political acceptability. The paper ends with conclusions and future research directions.     

Can travel vouchers encourage more sustainable travel?

The growth of transportation poses difficult dilemmas for social and environmental policy. There is broad agreement that a variety of ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ measures are needed. This article asks whether tax-free travel vouchers for employees could be important as incentives or ‘carrots’ to encourage the use of public transport. The basic idea of it is like Luncheon Vouchers for public transport. Employers issue the vouchers and claim the tax back from the Government. Potentially, travel vouchers could generate a ‘win–win’ situation in which transport operators’ rising revenues justified new services and these, in turn, encouraged more passengers. The research described here uses survey data and the National Travel Survey to examine acceptability and potential fiscal impact of a rural tax-free travel voucher scheme throughout the UK. These results show that there is sufficient acceptance of the idea of travel vouchers in rural areas to justify the further development of this policy.     

Policy insights from the urban road pricing case studies

This article reviews and compares the results of four modelling case studies of urban road pricing implementation that were carried out for the MC-ICAM project. The studies all concern large cities in Western Europe (Paris, Brussels, Oslo and Helsinki) and they all examine phased implementation paths in which constraints on the set of policy instruments are progressively relaxed. However, the studies used different models that vary with respect to the endogenous dimensions of traveller behaviour, the level of detail in which road and public transit networks are represented, and assumptions about what policy instruments are available and what constraints apply.     

Local authority and academic attitudes to urban road pricing: a UK perspective

Urban road pricing as an instrument of traffic management has generated a great deal of interest in the UK in recent years. Whilst this is the case there is still no urban road pricing scheme in operation in the UK. The reason for this is primarily one of ‘acceptability.’ This paper, through the use of a national survey, examines the attitudes of key stakeholder groups with respect to urban road pricing. How serious is traffic congestion and traffic related pollution perceived to be by Local Authority Councillors, Officials and the Academic community in the UK? How is urban road pricing viewed by this sub-group of the population in terms of its effectiveness and public acceptance when compared to other policy options? and how could the saleability of urban road pricing be improved? This raises issues in terms of how the revenue raised from urban road pricing should be utilised, the use of urban road pricing as part of a package of measures, the concerns expressed by the stakeholders with respect to urban road pricing, such as the invasion of road users’ privacy, and the type of technology which should be considered. Overall, the paper aims to further the debate among policy makers.     

Air transport security user charge pricing: An investigation of flat per-passenger charge vs. Ad Valorem user charge schemes

Following the 9/11 terrorist incidence, most countries introduced security charges on air travel, mostly in the form of flat rate per passenger. However, it is clear that such flat rate per passenger may not be socially optimal as implied by previous studies on airport pricing including those utilizing Ramsey pricing. Thus, an alternative pricing scheme may enhance social welfare. In this paper, recognizing the competitive reality of today’s airline markets we formulate and solve numerically a differentiated duopoly model in order to compare welfare implications of adopting the two most convenient forms of aviation security pricing: (1) charging a flat rate per passenger; and (2) charging Ad Valorem user fees. Since obtaining meaningful analytical results requires unrealistically restrictive assumptions, we designed a numerical experiment and conducted over 5000 simulations using a wide range of possible values of firms’ conduct parameters, extent of product differentiation, and market share split between full service airline (FSA) and low cost carrier (LCC). Our results show that Ad Valorem user fee is superior to the current policy of charging flat rate security fee in all cases except for very few unrealistic cases. The same conclusion can be directly applied to all other per-passenger fees or taxes being collected by governments and/or airports. This is an important finding given that taxes and user charges now account for up to 30% of the total ticket prices of short distance domestic travel in US.     

Institutional integration for sustainable transportation policy in Canada

In recent years, many Canadian urban areas have witnessed a rapid population and economic growth thereby putting sustainable transport and urban form at the forefront of planning initiatives. As a result, the development of strategic transport plans and long-range visioning exercises has become a priority for most cities. Still, proper appraisals of these plans along with funding and implementation have lagged behind. Reasons for this lag can be attributed to the lack of constructive interactions between actors in the decision-making process and of common grounds for policy evaluation. This paper proposes to assess the extent of institutional integration in the appraisal, funding, and implementation of transport policy. For this purpose, a survey was conducted with planners and policy-makers pertaining to the three levels of government (municipal, provincial, federal) in Canada. The survey discussed the existing process for funding and evaluation of transport policy and its associated pitfalls as well as the desired state of policy appraisal. Results show low institutional integration among the three levels of government and weakened regional visions within most urban areas in spite of an increased sensitization of decision-makers and the public regarding the importance of achieving society's goals of sustainability and equity.     

An adaptive approach to implementing innovative urban transport solutions

Urban transport is facing an increasing number of problems. Innovative technological solutions have been proposed for many of these problems. The implementation of these solutions, however, is surrounded by many uncertainties—for example, future relevant developments for urban transport demand and supply, the possible consequences of these developments for urban transportation system performance, and the way crucial stakeholders will value these consequences. In order to deal with these uncertainties, a flexible or adaptive policy is proposed that takes some actions right away and creates a framework for future actions that allow for adaptations over time as knowledge about urban transport technologies accumulates and critical events with respect to the implementation of these technologies take place. The adaptive approach is illustrated for three promising technological solutions for urban transport problems: (1) intelligent speed adaptation, (2) personal intelligent travel assistant, and (3) underground freight transport.     

Key research themes on governance and sustainable urban mobility

ABSTRACT

This article discusses the governance of sustainable urban development and in particular assesses the role of policy instruments to promote soft forms of governance associated with persuasion and coordination. These instruments are critically examined in terms of how they might help to promote greater policy integration and more sustainable development. Five types of strategies for promoting more sustainable transport policies are discussed: (1) policy indicators and targets, (2) benchmarking, (3) policy transfer and best practices, (4) policy experimentation/innovation, and (5) visioning/envisioning. The article is divided into four main parts. First, it presents an overview of recent trends in the governance of urban transport. Second, it examines the notion of policy integration, a central theme in discussions about sustainable transport and governance. Third, it considers how selected types of policy instruments might contribute to policy integration and sustainable urban development. Fourth, alongside the conclusions, suggestions are made for new research related to policy instruments and soft forms of governance in relation to urban transport.     

Evidence on users’ attitudes towards road user charges—A cross-sectional survey of six Norwegian toll schemes

Attitudes towards road user charges have in the last decade become a focus of interest for researchers and planners in a number of disciplines including economics, transport planning and environmental sciences. Most of the literature has been based on single and/or hypothetical schemes and has a number of limitations, such as the potential differences in attitudes that might depend on whether users have actually experienced the gains of tolling are not considered. This paper gives further insight into user attitudes towards road user charges and overcomes some of the limitations observed in the literature. In particular, we examine attitudes towards six different Norwegian toll schemes with different characteristics and at different stages of implementation. The results show the following: (i) road users think negatively of tolls irrespective of the type of scheme or stage of charging; (ii) negative attitudes are highly correlated with the level of information given to users on the intentions of the tolling prior to implementation and (iii) toll levels significantly impact attitudes. Further, it is shown that attitudes vary significantly with socioeconomic characteristics. These findings demonstrate that governments need marketing strategies that clearly explain the benefits to users beforehand. Some of these strategies are proposed.     

Integrated transport planning in the UK: From concept to reality

This paper explores the need for new planning authority practices and structures that can accommodate new policy demands, synergies and approaches to urban management in the UK. Initially it considers recent UK government ideas on the integration of transport and land use planning, exploring how the concept has been located carefully in relation to both established and emerging debates about, for example, sustainability, mobility and structures of governance. The paper then moves on to consider the relationship between these concepts in EU transport discourse taking an example from Sweden of what an integrated urban transport policy might look like on the ground. The final section develops a model of integration and applies this analytic construct to assess integration practices and outcomes of urban mobility management at the local authority level in England. The research uncovers implementation failures including duplication of procedures, failures in communication and the lack of clear and resourced responsibilities.     

Transport policy and environmental impacts: The importance of multi-instrumentality in policy integration

Despite the introduction of many instruments in the transport system, they failed to reach their target since gains in global environmental efficiency have not been enough to cope with the consequences of transport growth. The ultimate environmental challenge for transport policy makers is to improve the effectiveness of implementation of policy instruments. This paper explores the concept of multi-instrumentality as a systematic approach for transport policy integration and implementation. Based on extensive literature review, we assess a set of 14 transport policy instruments (weaknesses, strengths and barriers to implementation) and perform a pair-wise analysis of potential synergies in their integrated implementation. Conclusions are drawn on the potential success of multi-instrumentality.