Tacit knowledge

Until recently, the concept of tacit knowledge has been neglected by academics and managers alike, but this has now changed as lacit know-how has become recognized as palying a key role in firm growth and economic competitivenss. Tacit knowledge forms an important element in a firm's knowledge base and has a central role in organizational learning. This analysis stresses the need to view tacit knowledge in a dynamic setting, and that tacit knowledge can be acquired and transferred on a variety of levels: individual, group, firm and inter-firm basis. The paper then explores the policy implications of technology transfer initiatives which seek of shift tacit know-how between firms and analyzes the ways that this can be achieved.     

Contracting for tacit knowledge: the provision of technical services in technology licensing contracts

Recent research on the economic payoff from new technology has emphasized the importance of tacit knowledge or know-how. This paper shows that arm's length contract can overcome the problems in contracting for know-how by bundling complementary inputs with know-how in a technology package, and leveraging the superior enforceability of contracts over the latter. In the empirical part of this paper, the relationship between bundling and transfer of know-how is analyzed, using Indian data. The results imply that tied sales of inputs may increase the efficiency of contracts involving the transfer of know-how. A striking result, in the context of the current North-South debates on intellectual property rights, is the packaging of patents with know-how.     

Tacit knowledge, the life cycle and international manufacturing transfer

The ease with which a firm can tranfer its manufacturing capability is strongly affected by the transferability of the manufacturing processes involved. A key determinant of transferability is the nature of the knowledge that has accumulated in the transmitting firm. The life cycle model can provide the basis for a discussion of knowledge accumulation, and home for manufacturing process tranferability over time. Drawing upon ideas of tacit knowing, the authors chllenge the assumption that a manufacturing process necessarily becomes more tranferable as it matures. Data drawn from six case studies are used to illustrate how tacit knowledge can aflect the transfer process. The paper concludes with a typology of tacit knowledge in the manufacturing environment, and sugests steps which a firm might take to improve its transfer capability.     

Firms as knowledge repositories

One reason firms exist is to serve as knowledge repositories. Firms compete against other firms and need profits to survive. Firms must be entrepreneurial to discover and act on profit opportunities. Knowledge required to spot profit opportunities is disbursed among economic actors and often is tacit knowledge that can only be obtained by those in close proximity. This gives rise to agglomeration economies, which can be leveraged within firms. In a competitive economy people have an incentive to keep knowledge from people in other firms, but to share it with those in their firm. One role of the firm is to act as a repository of knowledge for those within the firm’s boundaries, and to lower the cost of obtaining knowledge about profit opportunities. Entrepreneurs need firms to contain and capture the profits from their innovations.     

授权型领导对员工隐性知识分享的影响机制

在环境不确定性和内外部资源约束情境下，知识管理对于企业成长与发展变得愈发重要。从心理授权视角出发，探讨了授权型领导与员工隐性知识分享的关系，并以角色认同与自我归类理论为基础，进一步研究了内部人身份感知与职场友谊在以上关系中的作用。基于276份“主管-员工”配对数据的实证结果表明：授权型领导对员工隐性知识分享具有显著正向预测效果；内部人身份感知在授权型领导与隐性知识分享之间起到部分中介作用；职场友谊正向调节内部人身份感知与隐性知识分享间的关系，即职场友谊水平越高，内部人身份感知对员工隐性知识分享的正向作用越强。     

Theories of the firm: contractual and competence perspectives

The article compares alternative approaches to the theory of the firm. The two main approaches confronted are the contractual (Coasian) perspective and the competence (evolutionary) perspective. Whereas the firm as a repository of tacit knowledge is neglected in the contractual perspectives, it occupies center stage in the competence perspective. It is argued that the competence perspective is not only applicable an understanding of the sources of firms' competitive advantage, but may also be applied to the issues of the existence and the boundaries of the firm. This means that a distinct theory of the firm can be constructed on the basis of evolutionary theory.     

关系与结构洞的碰撞：科技成果转化中的隐性知识转化

透过关系填充结构洞视角,探索在中国特殊儒家文化背景下,关系如何缓解结构洞对隐性知识转化的阻碍作用,进而提升高校科技成果转化效率。通过对江苏省310名员工的问卷调查和社会网络分析,以及对60名员工的半结构化访谈发现,在高校科技成果转化过程中,结构洞会阻碍团队成员间的隐性知识转化,而关系能够促进隐性知识转化;关系能够缓解结构洞对隐性知识转化的阻碍作用,进而促进隐性知识转化;促进隐性知识转化能够提升高校科技成果转化效率。最后提出运用关系鼓励结构洞占据者填充其结构洞,连结两边不认识的个体,以促进整个网络的隐性知识转化,推动高校科技成果转化。     

Licensing Tacit Knowledge: Intellectual Property Rights And The Market For Know-How

Technology transfer involves more than just the permission to use knowledge covered by patents; the transfer of know-how is critical to the successful utilization of the transferred technology. However, know-how is typically difficult to codify, costly to transfer, and hence, difficult to contract upon. Using a principal-agent model I show that simple arms length contracts can accomplish the transfer know-how. The key to the success of arms length contracts is the complementarity between know-how and patents. The model explains why patents and know-how are bundled together in licensing contracts. It shows why licensing has limitations as a strategy for appropriating rents from innovation. The paper points to the key role that patent scope plays in determining the efficiency of know-how transfer and shows that broader patents can improve the efficiency of technology transfer, even when important components of the technology (know-how) are not protected by patents.     

开放式创新对企业突破性创新能力的影响

开放式创新作为一种新型创新模式，为隐性知识获取提供通道，对提升企业突破性创新能力具有重要意义。通过理论分析及对中原经济区高新技术企业的实证研究，得到如下发现：内向型开放式创新对技能型隐性知识获取有正向影响，外向型开放式创新对认知型隐性知识获取有正向影响；技能型和认知型隐性知识获取对突破性创新能力均有正向影响；技能型隐性知识获取在内向型开放式创新和突破性创新能力间起完全中介作用，认知型隐性知识获取在外向型开放式创新和突破性创新能力间起部分中介作用。     

基于知识管理与TRIZ方法的创新设计平台

通过营建企业交流空间的方法,可充分挖掘企业内部隐性知识,并利用所构建的强大网络系统,智能搜索企业外部同行业知识,实现企业隐性知识向显性知识的转化,形成企业知识库。在此基础上,通过知识地图和企业知识CAI学习软件将企业知识管理平台中的显性知识转化为员工隐性知识,还可增加企业创新的源动力。为进一步辅助企业创新设计,将所建知识管理平台与TRIZ方法结合,借鉴TRIZ方法解决问题的思路,设计出基于知识管理与TRIZ方法的计算机辅助创新平台框架。     

From Know-how to Show-how? Questioning the Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Knowledge Transfer

This paper explores and critically reviews the ability of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to improve the transferability of knowledge. The aim here is to look beyond knowledge transfer at a general level. By distinguishing between codified knowledge and tacit knowledge, a more thorough understanding of knowledge transfer is sought, and in particular of the role of ICTs in this process. ICTs favour the transfer of knowledge that can be codified and reduced to data. Of central concern here is what role, if any, do ICTs have in the transfer of tacit knowledge? This paper raises issues concerning the relationship between knowledge transfer, ICTs and trust.     

知识视角下虚拟组织持续创新能力形成机理

基于知识视角，剖析虚拟组织知识资源获取、知识集成、学习能力、信任与持续创新能力的关系机制，构建虚拟组织持续创新能力形成机理模型。在此基础上，选取251家创新企业样本进行实证研究。结果发现：知识资源获取分别对持续创新能力、知识集成有非常显著的正向作用；知识集成对持续创新能力影响显著，知识集成在显性知识资源获取与持续创新能力之间起部分中介作用，而在隐性知识资源获取与持续创新能力之间起完全中介作用；学习能力和信任显著调节知识资源获取对知识集成的正向作用，且显性知识资源获取与隐性知识资源获取随着企业间学习能力与信任度的提升，通过知识集成中介对持续创新能力的作用更显著。     

Economic Consequences of Limited Technology Transferability

Because technology is often context-dependent and partly tacit, it is much less transferable than conventional 'innovation and market structure' models have long assumed. Technological know-how is represented in this paper as a combination of formal knowledge and informal practice. The balance of these basic components is viewed as an optimisation of R&D investment structure and level within an oligopolistic framework. We analyse the outcomes of this optimisation in terms of R&D production efficiency and social welfare. With regard to R&D investment structure, we find that the equilibrium outcome is neither efficient nor socially optimal, and the stronger competition is, the larger the divergence from efficiency and social optimum. For R&D investment level, the results are less conclusive, but they imply that competition represents the best conditions for stimulating R&D investment     

经验类隐性知识多阶隐性特征分析与演变模型构建

针对知识管理研究中存在的隐性判据单一问题,提出知识多阶隐性特征,从知识是否可见的单一判据逐阶扩展到结果、过程、情景等多个维度,对隐性知识进行更加明确清晰的界定和划分。然后,基于知识多阶隐性特征,从二维视角研究隐性知识从完全隐性到完全显性演变过程,提出经验类隐性知识演变二维体系模型,进而详细论述演变模型中隐性知识显性化过程的多阶内涵和特征。最后,通过企业实例验证模型的适用性和有效性,研究结论对于企业知识管理中的隐性知识表征、获取、共享等应用型研究具有重要意义。     

虚拟组织网络规模、网络结构对合作创新绩效的作用机制——知识资源获取的中介效应

基于开放式创新视角,以231家企业作为样本,实证检验虚拟组织网络规模、网络结构通过知识资源获取路径对合作创新绩效的作用机理。结果表明,网络规模对显性知识资源获取、合作创新绩效有显著正向影响;网络中心性对显性知识资源获取、隐性知识资源获取与合作创新绩效有显著正向影响;网络规模对隐性知识资源获取的影响不显著;显性知识资源获取在网络规模与合作创新绩效关系中发挥完全中介效应;隐性知识资源获取在网络中心性与合作创新绩效关系中发挥完全中介效应。结论可为丰富和完善虚拟组织持续创新理论及创新绩效理论奠定重要基础,具有实践应用价值。     

Cooperative R&D and Commitment to A Policy of Know-how Trading

In this paper, we develop a theoretical framework to investigate the impact of adopting a strategy of know-how trading on the degree of research and development (R&D) cooperation. We show that the consequences of cooperation in know-how sharing under the conditions of the model are similar to a policy of cooperation in R&D investments in areas with large spillovers. An industry-wide policy of cooperation among competitors with respect to R&D investment and sharing would simply result in maximal joint profits. This cooperative R&D outcome could be generalized to any degree of spillover other than 100%. In this paper, the commitment to a policy of know-how trading by the participants in an industry is explained by the firm’s attempt to induce the equilibrium of a single industry-wide cooperative research joint venture. In a repeated game framework, we show that pre-commitments by non-cooperative firms to disclose their own know-how to the industry can be effective in inducing cooperative R&D investments by the participants.     

The Tacit Nature of Design Knowledge

Valuable knowledge acquired by small manufacturing enterprises (SMEs) over time can be lost through the exit of staff. The difficulty of retaining knowledge lies in the fact that part of the knowledge involved is tacit in nature and is highly, if not totally, inarticulable. This paper analyzes the explicit/tacit nature of the design knowledge involved in projects undertaken by an SME. It is analyzed to provide a model of knowledge application and a schema for eliciting the mental process during knowledge application and the types of knowledge used respectively. The tacit characteristics associated with the application of design knowledge are explored. The paper also discusses the tactics that can be employed to tackle the knowledge retention problem as experienced by the SME.     

Knowledge appropriability, firm size, and growth

Empirical evidence shows that the number of patents per R&D dollar declines with firm size. In this paper, we propose a Schumpeterian growth model that accounts for this evidence. We analyze an economy with firms that engage in cost-reducing innovation resulting from the accumulation of both codified and tacit knowledge: the former occurs through the purchase of patents, while the latter is the result of R&D conducted in-house by firms. We study the relation between knowledge appropriability and market structure, and we show that a shift from patents to in-house research occurs as firm size gets larger. Since innovation statistics concentrate mainly on patents, this process of research reallocation results into an under-estimation of innovative activity and is responsible for the declining ratio of patents to R&D expenditure. Survey data on UK-based firms provide support to our results.     

知识溢出对高技术集群企业研发产出的影响

本文在归纳国内外有关集群中知识溢出研究成果的基础上,对知识溢出、高技术产业集群和研发三个研究要素进行了概念界定和维度划分,提出了这三个要素之间作用关系的研究框架,分别探讨了显性知识溢出和隐性知识溢出对高技术集群企业研发产出的影响机制。结果表明,无论是隐性知识还是显性知识,都可通过研发合作互动实现溢出、提高集群企业的研发产出水平,并最终导致其竞争能力的提升。最后,确定了三个研究要素的测量指标,并指出了今后的研究方向。     

Towards an economic theory of the multiproduct firm

This paper outlines a theory of the multiproduct firm. Important building blocks include excess capacity and its creation, market imperfections, and the peculiarities of organizational knowledge, including its fungible and tacit character. A framework is adopted in which profit seeking firms are seen to diversify in order to avoid the high transactions costs associated with using various markets to trade the services of various specialized assets. Neoclassical explanations of the multiproduct firm are shown to be seriously deficient.