Evaluation of land administration systems

Currently there are no internationally accepted methodologies to evaluate and compare the performance of land administration systems. This is partly because land administration systems are in constant reform, and probably more importantly, they represent societies’ different perceptions of land. This paper describes the development of a framework to measure and compare the performance of land administration systems. The research is of particular relevance since it develops a management model which links the operational aspects of land administration with land policy.     

Evaluating land administration projects in developing countries

There have been various approaches to evaluating and comparing the performance of land administration and land titling projects in developing countries. Many of these consider the efficiency of land administration processes and the capacity of institutions. This paper presents the results of research undertaken by the authors and considers the most common approaches taken to date, and the strengths and limitations of these approaches. The authors argue that improvements are needed to project design and make recommendations for more effective use of socio-economic analyses.     

Lessons learned: an evaluation of land administration initiatives in Latin America over the past two decades

Latin America has a long and rich history of land administration projects stretching back to the 1980s and beyond. Unfortunately, this history has not been systematically analyzed nor recorded but is buried in a myriad of reports and other gray literature. Currently, almost every country in the region has a land administration project, incorporating cadastral reform, that is either in preparation or being implemented. It is therefore timely to consider what lessons have been learned from previous experience, in the region and elsewhere, and more specifically how this experience can inform current efforts. This paper starts with a summary of a recent World Bank/USAID initiative to compile lessons learned from land administration projects around the world and follows with the author's view of lessons learned in the context of project design, institutional reform and technical innovation.     

Land administration “best practice” providing the infrastructure for land policy implementation

Land administration systems, and particularly their core cadastral components, are an important infrastructure which facilitates the implementation of land use policies. While most land administration systems traditionally have a primary objective of supporting the operation of land markets, they are increasingly evolving into a broader land information infrastructure which supports economic development, environmental management and social stability in both developed and developing countries. While a great deal of attention is given to land use policies worldwide concerned with such areas as forest management, coastal zone management, environmental sustainability and managing the urban environment, less attention is given to the infrastructures which facilitate the implementation of the associated policies and programmes. Importantly, all these activities rely on some form of land administration infrastructure which permits the complex range of rights, restrictions and responsibilities in land to be identified, mapped and managed as a basis for policy formulation and implementation. As a result, there is an increasing interest in the concept of land administration infrastructures and their core cadastres, in the principles and policies concerned with establishing such infrastructures and in “best practices”. In addressing this need, this paper attempts to explain the evolving concept of land administration infrastructures, the concept of “best practice” and the concept of a land administration “tool box” of principles, policies, laws and technologies which are useful in reforming or re-engineering land administration systems in support of a broader land policy agenda.     

Violent visions of an ownership society: The land administration project in Petén, Guatemala

This article is a case study of phase one of the World Bank's land administration project in Petén, Guatemala. Although the project's stated aims are merely to formalize an existing set of individual landed property rights, this development intervention necessarily changes the property regime, thereby changing underlying relationships that land as property embodies. Impact evaluations conducted by development economists may fail to substantively address displacement and violence that occur as a short-term effect of the project and long-term disparate impacts of the project that may exacerbate existing inequalities. The case of Petén also highlights the possibility for violent enforcement of property boundaries, where conflict surges between the disenfranchised and those who gain power under the new property regime.     

The evolving concepts of land administration in China: Cultivated land protection perspective

This paper presents a holistic method by integrating three concepts (land resources management, assets supervision and political governance for sustainability) for investigation of land administration in China, taking into consideration of cultivated land protection for a testimony with econometric method. Theoretically, in this self-organizing integrated method, land resources management focuses on the productivity of land; land assets supervision centralizes on the realization of land usufruct rights in land transference; land political governance for sustainability concentrates on harmonious linkage of economic efficiency, social stability and environmental safety of land use. Their interrelations are complex. Methodologically, the results indicate that the theoretical model is feasible to explain variations of cultivated land protection with these three concepts. Cultivated land decreases with increasing land value increment multiples, and is positive with political governance concept, but not in a linear fashion. Finally the results suggest that roles of government in land administration need to be changed and strengthened, supporting complete compensation for land expropriation and modification to policies of cultivated land.     

An evaluation framework for earthquake-responsive land administration

In recent years earthquakes and their secondary hazards have claimed the largest number of lives of all large natural disasters. Some of the world’s most earthquake-prone zones are also areas of high population density. The impact is magnified by vulnerability factors including non-enforcement of building codes, knowledge gaps, urban poverty and poor governance capacity to manage and reduce earthquake risks. Poor security of land tenure and property rights increases the vulnerability of people and affects their ability to respond to natural disasters.Earthquake recovery and reconstruction provides very significant challenges for land agencies, with these challenges differing from one country to the next due to differences in the local context. Drawing on contrasting case studies in Haiti, Nepal and New Zealand this paper identifies the common post-earthquake land administration functions and challenges that may apply to many contexts. These lessons provide land agencies and other key stakeholders with a summary of the challenges an earthquake poses for land administration at different post-disaster stages. We also discuss the policy and regulatory, institutional, operational and preparedness lessons for land administration. From these lessons we propose a framework for evaluating the earthquake-responsiveness of a land administration system. This framework can be used by a land agency in an earthquake prone region, or where an earthquake has recently occurred, to assess what challenges to land administration might occur in the event of an earthquake, and the preparedness of their land administration system.     

Urban land administration and planning in China: Opportunities and constraints of spatial data models

China's economic reforms over the past decades have given rise to the development of a rudimentary urban land market. Although one cannot speak of a land “market” in the strict sense of the word, there is an urban land allocation system in which land lease rights can be acquired through the payment of a land-use fee. If the urban land market is to develop in a sustainable manner, new credible institutions need to be established that can safeguard greater legal security and transparency. For these purposes, it is necessary to establish a management system that can support the legal (tenure security), economic (leases, taxes) and broader aspects (spatial and environmental land use policies) of land administration. To make an urban land administration system socially credible and functional, land-related information should be registered and structured at a detailed spatial level, such as parcels. There is no parcel-based information system in China, but the country has developed a population registration system at a detailed spatial level that could be a starting point to develop integrated information systems, or a so-called “local spatial data infrastructure”. This paper reviews China's population registration system and their spatial units and presents a proposal for an information system that can be expanded or adapted to meet the requirements of an effective land administration system.     

Effects of different land reallocation models on the success of land consolidation projects: Social and economic approaches

One of the most important steps in land consolidation (LC) is the land reallocation work, which has a prominent effect on the LC success. For this reason, land reallocation should be handled carefully. There are interview and block priority-based models for land reallocation. The application of different models may have either positive or negative effects on the success of land consolidation.     

4D cadastres: First analysis of legal,organizational, and technical impact—With a case study on utility networks

The increasing complexity and flexibility of modern land use requires that cadastres need an improved capacity to manage the third dimension. As the world is per definition not static, there also will be needs in relation to the representation of the temporal (fourth) dimension either integrated with the spatial dimensions or as separate attribute(s). In this paper, registration of utility networks in cadastre are considered in this 3D + time (=4D) context. A number of countries in the world have developed methods to register utility networks complying with their legal, organizational, and technical structure. We researched the different approaches of three specific countries: Turkey, The Netherlands and Queensland, Australia. These are analysed to evaluate a solution that matches legal, organizational, and technical cadastral requirements in the most optimal way.     

Development of 3D underground cadastral data model in Korea: Based on land administration domain model

Underground space is being considered as a sustainable development resource, especially in heavily urbanized areas such as Seoul, in Korea. However, regarding 3D underground property, uncertainties and gaps exist between cadastral system and real property registration system. In Korea, cadastral system is able to deal with only 2D surface parcel, on the contrary, real property registration system is able to register and manage legal status of 3D underground properties. The mismatch between these two systems causes various types of problems for underground properties such as a vertical boundary disputes between aboveground and underground ownerships, administrative confusion and dual-compensation problems for new underground construction, reconstruction and haphazard development for underground space due to the lack of systematic registration procedure. In order to overcome these problems, this research proposes a 3D underground cadastral data model, which is associated and integrated with classes in ISO 19152 Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) developed by the Technical Committee 211 of the International Organization for Standardization. The proposed 3D underground cadastral data model comprises two packages: 3D underground parcel package, and 3D underground surveying and mapping package. It would support a better service for land administration by providing reliable and accurate spatial information on 3D underground property. In order to validate the proposed 3D underground cadastral data model, the prototype is developed and implemented in real-world situation for the first time. The proposed 3D underground cadastral data model can register various types of 3D underground properties including architectures such as shopping mall, public walkway, parking lot, and etc., and civil infrastructures such as subway, road, water supply, sewage, common utility tunnel, and etc. The results show that the proposed 3D underground cadastral data model could be applicable for other information system such as land valuation and taxation system, urban planning system, construction and facility management system.     

Prioritising land to be preserved for agriculture: A context-specific value tree

In Belgium as in many other countries, agricultural land is under pressure for development of other land uses. This paper presents a method for setting priorities for preservation of land for agriculture. The method is based on a participatory approach through which a value tree is formulated. This results in a list of criteria to define farmland value, which is explicitly linked to the objectives for farmland preservation. The value tree allows the list of criteria to be determined in a structured and consistent way. The participatory process contributes to the development of a shared vision on farmland preservation. The approach also incorporates context specificity, as shown by its application for farmland preservation in Flanders.     

A game theory approach to the analysis of land and property development processes

Land and property development processes obviously can be seen as a social situation in which the interaction of individuals or groups of individuals is one of the essential elements. To study and understand social situations, it is important to analyse how the decisions of actors are interrelated and how those decisions result in outcomes. In this paper, we propose a game theoretical modelling approach to analyse it. Hence, the objective of the paper is to investigate the usefulness as well as the limitations of game theoretical modelling for analysing and predicting the behaviour of actors in decision-making processes with respect to the development of land and property. For that purpose, we have developed game models for the case study of the development of a greenfield residential location in the Netherlands with respect to the implementation of new Dutch legislation on cost recovery.     

Urban land management in China: A study of the present system and an investigation of current issues and problems

Summary

The paper commences by describing the statutory basis for land tenure and management. It examines the constitutional basis for land ownership and occupation rights, as amended by land administration law. The legal system and procedures at both central and local government level are introduced, with particular mention made of the special measures for land requisition. This is followed by a study of the organizational structure for land management in China at state and local government levels. The roles and responsibilities of the major agencies of government at both levels are explained, and related to the organization of urban planning. A separate section is then devoted to those areas such as Special Economic Zones and Open Coastal Cities which have been selected for preferential treatment, particularly in respect of the transfer of land use rights.

The paper concludes with a study of the main issues and problems that currently confront China in the field of urban land management. And some suggestions are made where further reform is required and additional research of potential benefit.     

The interface between land use systems research and policy: Multiple arrangements and leverages

In recent years, interest in the policy-informing role of research organisations has grown considerably. It has been argued from within the science domain that the management of land, whether at the field, farm or regional scale, can benefit from computer-based systems analysis. This proposition was examined through 26 semi-structured interviews, by conducting a workshop on modelling support in policy decision-making and investigating 11 European-based cases of policy-oriented modelling research. On basis of these materials, we assess approaches towards policy-oriented modelling within the domain of agricultural production and other environmental services of land. First, we define the boundary arrangements for our field of interest, i.e. computer-based systems analysis of agricultural production and ecosystems services. Such ideotypical classification of boundary arrangements makes explicit the institutional space in which system scientists function. This space enables certain activities, and at the same time constrains other initiatives, dependent on who is perceived to initiate and/or control research activities and to formulate objectives, and whether it is considered appropriate to integrate scientific knowledge development with policy work. Five ideotypical boundary arrangements are proposed: ‘Civil mandate’; ‘Trickle out’; ‘Janus face’; ‘Critical participant’; and ‘Knowledge broker’. In a second step, a number of critical leverage points are identified based on the 11 cases and these are addressed in relation to the five boundary arrangements. The term ‘leverage point’ covers means, conditions and methods that foster use of modelling work that can be changed, and thus may be part of a strategy to increase the chances that a model is used. The leverage points were: reputation of research institute and/or scientists; raising and balancing expectations; communication about and investment in the scientific basis of the modelling work; participation in model development; heterogeneous and extensive social network in policy domain; institute mandate that secures availability of ‘stepping stones’. We conceive of two applications of our research for modellers who are interested in the use of their work in the policy sphere. First, the boundary arrangement classification helps to interpret the experiences of others and to assess the relevance of lessons and suggestions for their own context. Secondly, the combination of the boundary arrangement perspective and critical leverage points presents a basis to design an institutional pathway for enhancing impact of modelling research in the policy sphere. For those researchers functioning in a science-domain-oriented environment, the analysis in this paper suggests that there are more options than the frequently proposed ‘more participation’ for increasing the likelihood that their policy-oriented work is used. These include establishing contacts with research groups or institutes that are in a position to function as ‘stepping stones’, or engaging with others to develop a social network in the policy sphere.     

Distinguishing ambivalence from indifference: A study of attitudes toward land trusts among members and nonmembers

Private, not-for-profit land trusts have become major players in U.S. conservation efforts in the last 50 years. During this period membership in land trust organizations has grown. Despite the expansion of land trusts and land trust membership, little is known about public attitudes and beliefs about these organizations. To address this gap, we fielded a mail survey to members of a regional land trust in Indiana and a sample of nonmembers that reside in the areas served by that organization. In addition to examining differences in land trust members and nonmembers in terms of their demographic characteristics, recreation habits, awareness and use of land trust properties; we examined land trust beliefs and attitudes. Drawing from recent developments in attitude theory, the study employed a two-dimensional/bivariate model that allowed us to assess attitudes and distinguish between two forms of neutral attitudes toward land trusts – ambivalence (equal positive and negative feelings) and indifference (lack of any feelings). The study results indicated that, on average, land trust members were slightly older, better educated, and had lived in the area for shorter period of time than nonmembers. Members were also more likely to engage in non-consumptive outdoor activities like hiking and bird watching, while nonmembers were more likely to fish and hunt. Members also tended to have more positive attitudes toward land trusts and were more likely to express positive associations with land trusts. Nonmember attitudes demonstrated greater variability; specifically compared to members, nonmembers were more like to hold indifferent, ambivalent, or negative attitudes toward land trusts. Additional analysis comparing these three non-member groups provided insight into differences in their behaviors, knowledge, and underlying beliefs. We conclude with a discussion of the implications for organizational policy and outreach efforts.     

The effect of decoupling on marginal agricultural systems: Implications for farm incomes,land use and upland ecology

In many parts of Europe, decades of production subsidies led to the steady intensification of agriculture in marginal areas. The recent decoupling of subsidies from production decisions means that the future of farming in these areas is uncertain. For example, in the uplands of the United Kingdom, an area important both for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision, hill farmers steadily increased stocking densities in response to headage payments but must now reconfigure farm businesses to account for the shift to the Single Farm Payment scheme. We examined hill farming in the Peak District National Park as a case study into the future of marginal agriculture after decoupling. We surveyed 44 farm businesses and from this identified six representative farm types based on enterprise mix and land holdings. We developed linear programming models of production decisions for each farm type to examine the impacts of policy changes, comparing the effects of decoupling with and without agri-environment and hill farm support, and evaluating the effects of removal of the Single Farm Payment. The main effects of decoupling are to reduce stocking rates, and to change the mix of livestock activities. Agri-environmental schemes mediate the income losses from decoupling, and farmers are predicted to maximise take up of new Environmental Stewardship programmes, which have both positive and negative feedback effects on livestock numbers. Finally, removal of the Single Farm Payment leads to negative net farm incomes, and some land abandonment. These changes have important implications for ongoing debates about how ecological service flows can be maintained from upland areas, and how marginal upland farming communities can be sustained.     

Strategies to increase agricultural productivity and reduce land degradation: evidence from Uganda

This paper estimates a structural econometric model of household decisions regarding income strategies, participation in programs and organisations, crop choices, land management, and labour use, and their implications for agricultural production and soil erosion; based upon a survey of over 450 households and their farm plots in Uganda. Many factors have context-specific impacts and involve trade-offs between increasing production and reducing land degradation. Government agricultural extension and training programs contribute to higher value of crop production in the lowlands, but to soil erosion in the highlands. By contrast, non-governmental organization (NGO) programs focusing on agriculture and environment help to reduce erosion, but have less favourable impacts on production in the lowlands. Education increases household incomes, but also reduces crop production in the lowlands. Poverty has mixed impacts on agricultural production, depending on the nature of poverty: smaller farms obtain higher crop production per hectare, while households with fewer livestock have lower crop production. Population pressure contributes to agricultural intensification, but also to erosion in the densely populated highlands. Several household income strategies contribute to increased value of crop production, without significant impacts on soil erosion. We find little evidence of impact of access to markets, roads and credit, land tenure or title on agricultural intensification and crop production and land degradation. In general, the results imply that the strategies to increase agricultural production and reduce land degradation must be location-specific, and that there are few 'win-win' opportunities to simultaneously increase production and reduce land degradation.