土地利用总体规划与城市规划冲突的利益关系及协调

研究目的：调查“两规”冲突不同利益主体的利益诉求及其针对城镇建设用地规模这一“两规”冲突核心问题的行为倾向,并据此勾勒出“两规”冲突的利益相关者关系,进而探寻相应的协调对策。研究方法：问卷调查法、深度访谈法。研究结果：15个利益主体有不同的利益诉求,其中某些主体同时拥有多项相互矛盾的利益诉求;针对城镇建设用地规模这一核心问题,具有矛盾利益诉求的主体有着不同的行为倾向;依据其利益诉求及行为倾向,可以将15个利益主体分别归入利益相关者核心层、紧密层和松散层。研究结论：改变核心层利益相关者的利益诉求,减缓其对立关系是解决“两规”冲突的根本出路;在规划编制阶段构建完善的冲突协商机制和在规划审批阶段强化省级政府的制约作用是当前更务实的选择;此外,还需强化规划的执行监督,及时发现并处置冲突。     

The ‘squeezed middle’: Identifying and addressing conflicting demands on intermediate quality farmland in Scotland

The growing demand for a wide range of private and public goods and services from a finite land resource is increasingly challenging for planners at local, regional, national and international scales. The Scottish Government's development of a Land Use Strategy has given salience to resolving conflicts and enhancing synergies in land use. In Scotland, the poorest quality farmland is often designated for nature and landscape conservation and the highest quality farmland often protected for food production. This means that many of the competitive pressures on land are experienced in what we term the ‘squeezed middle’. The paper identifies the multiple (and not exclusively economic) drivers of land use choices and, through an ecosystem services lens, explores three particular areas of land use conflict. These are (i) the continued high level of public support for farming, which has done little to address the problem of low farm incomes; (ii) the pressure to increase woodland planting on farm (and other) land; and (iii) conflicts associated with intensive game management, especially on sporting estates. Using the Scottish situation as an example, the heterogeneity of land use pressures means that there is a danger of the principles of the Land Use Strategy becoming lost in translation from national policy to practical land use decision-making. The appropriate scale for delivery of integrated ecosystem services may therefore be more local than current pilot projects, and may require more active participation of land managers. It may also require policy instruments that are more flexible in adapting to the local context, including payments for ecosystem services.     

Public evaluation of landscape content and change: Several examples from Europe

This paper considers rural land use by analysing stakeholder values and perceptions concerning various landscape components. The purpose is to show that landscape content and land cover interactions with societal connections should be a base for land use development. The practical goal is to deliberate research tools to quantify public opinions and attitudes, which could form bases for developing of decision support tools. The main research objectives are: (1) to assess existing opinions concerning land use changes and provide a clearer insight into public attitudes to the role of woodlands for an integrated development of the countryside; (2) to place ecological and socio-economic values on inanimate natural components of landscapes; and (3) to assess values and preferences held by land use policy and management experts regarding multiple landscape components and features to assist in decision-making. Through the different levels of importance (values) accorded by the respondents to the integration of nature components in rural landscapes public priorities were identified. The paper develops an understanding of why certain aspects of land use changes are unfavourably viewed by some people and favourably received by others. It suggests some innovative perspectives on the areas of consensus and conflict between people, providing initial information for the selection and evaluation of land use management decisions.     

Stakeholders’ perceptions of forestry in rural areas—Two case studies in Ireland

Ireland has undergone a substantial afforestation programme in the last 20 years, resulting in the forest cover increasing from 4.8% of the land area in 1983 to a current level of 10%. This paper presents the results of a study undertaken to assess stakeholders’ perceptions of forestry in two case study areas in Ireland. The two areas, Shillelagh and Newmarket, were chosen because their demographic characteristics varied as did their history of forestry development. However, the current forest cover is similar in the two areas both in terms of species composition and extent. Qualitative techniques, involving interviews with stakeholders, were used. There were striking differences in the perceptions of forestry in the cases study areas. In Shillelagh, which had a longer history of forest cover and a more urbanized population than Newmarket, forestry was considered part both of the local history and traditional landscape. Forests were valued for their amenity and recreation functions rather than their economic function. In contrast, perceptions of forestry in Newmarket were negative. Forestry was considered to be an isolating agent which was not part of the landscape of the area. The forests were also considered to have negligible amenity value. These negative perceptions in Newmarket seem to be linked to the dominance of Sitka spruce, an exotic conifer, in the forests. Stakeholders expressed the desire that if forestry was to expand further in the area that it would be through the planting of broadleaf species rather than conifers. The fact that these negative perceptions did not emerge in Shillelagh despite it having a similar species composition is attributed to the more gradual rate of afforestation and thus landscape change in the area. The lack of consultation and approach to planning regarding afforestation proposals was identified as a key issue in Newmarket with stakeholders expressing the wish that they should be consulted more when afforestation was planned. Greater community involvement in the planning of afforestation proposals is recommended as a means of improving consultation and to help dispel negative perceptions. The paper concludes by highlighting that perceptions of forestry within an area are dynamic and are influenced by the history of forestry development in that area.     

The design of land policy in Israel: Between law and political culture

This article deals with the Israeli land policy in light of a certain judicial decision made by the Israeli High Court of justice (HCJ). A decision known as the “Land decision” (2002). Following the concept of shared mental models I will claim that the ruling of the HCJ at the given point in time expresses societal preferences formed through a process of learning through which society develops a shared mental model of ‘alternative behavior’ that reflects the way in which individuals and groups adapt to solve the social problems they face in various contexts. This shared mental model provides a frame of reference for the actions of political players such as politicians, special interest groups as well as the Supreme Court in shaping the design and implementation of Israel’ land policy. However regarding the Israeli land decision the ability of the Supreme Court to determine policy is limited on the implementation level.     

Stakeholder perceptions and governance challenges in urban protected area management: The case of the Las Piñas – Parañaque Critical Habitat and Ecotourism Area,Philippines

The conservation and management of protected areas in urban settings has become increasingly challenging with dynamics over land use change in adjacent urban areas being highly relevant to, but at times conflicting with, the protected area. This study seeks to better understand the implications of land use change processes to urban protected area management through the case study of the Las Piñas – Parañaque Critical Habitat and Ecotourism Area (LPPCHEA) in Metro Manila, Philippines. Factors and processes influencing land use change and protected area management and the impact of stakeholders’ perceptions on protected area were analyzed. The urban protected area in itself has limited influence on its surrounding urban areas, as land use change in these areas is shaped more by social, economic and policy/institutional factors occurring within the context of urban-regional development. The study also found that land use conflict is evident in an urban protected area due to the competing ecosystem services derived by various stakeholders. This discord is deepened by the lack of coordination between land use planning and protected area management. Integrating protected area management with land use planning through legally binding instruments, specific timeframes and clear internal procedures can help resolve land use conflict for an urban protected area at the strategic or policy level.     

Sustainable rural communities? A legal perspective on the community right to buy

Sustainable development is the underlying policy behind the community right to buy land in rural Scotland enshrined in the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003, Part 2. The Act explicitly requires communities wishing to exercise the right to buy to have sustainable development at the heart of their community body and all their plans for the land. This paper examines the role and interpretation of sustainable development in the CRB. Since the Act was passed three administrations have headed up the Scottish government and sustainable development issues and strategies for Scotland have been aired in four important and distinctive policy documents showing that it is still very much an evolving concept in Scottish politics. The current administration has adopted the most econocentric approach yet seen in the UK, focusing on sustainable economic growth. Meanwhile, the community right to buy has developed its own sustainable development agenda. This review of decisions taken under the legislation illustrates that a diverse range of community ownership plans have been deemed consistent with sustainable development, from creation of sports facilities to preservation of castles, lighthouses and village greens. A range of economic, social and environmental objectives have been approved. On the other hand, communities that fail to adopt the ‘right’ approach to the principle will not be successful in using the legislation.     

Participatory computer simulation to support collective decision-making: Potential and limits of stakeholder involvement

System models in agriculture and natural resource management are usually developed by researchers to advise policy makers on the likely outcomes of alternative scenarios. Except for data collection, stakeholders—like farm households—are rarely involved in the research process. Companion modeling (ComMod) has been developed as a modeling approach to include various stakeholders in a continuous feedback loop between researchers and stakeholders. Whereas other ComMod approaches have used role playing games as an interface between researchers and stakeholders—assuming that stakeholders have difficulties understanding a computer model—this paper explores the potential of a participatory modeling approach in which stakeholders are directly confronted with the model by assessing its assumptions, interpreting simulation results, and suggesting scenarios.The approach is applied to two villages in a watershed in northern Thailand. One lowland village, populated by farmers of mostly Thai ethnic origin, depends partially on an upland village inhabited by farmers of Hmong ethnic origin for its water supply. Water scarcity has led to conflicts between these two villages in the past.In three rounds of participatory simulation sessions the potential of the ComMod model was tested. Our findings confirm that researchers face particular challenges in making local stakeholders understand the model as a reproduction of reality and not as reality itself. The idea of a scenario as a hypothetical situation was also difficult to convey. An ex-post analysis among participants showed that farmers who attended several sessions had a clear understanding of the model and one-third of the participants thought it useful to exchange points of view with the other community and to define new collective rules for water sharing. Applying ComMod in a context that is characterized by social tensions and power differentials, however, needs careful consideration of the potential implications on less powerful actors.     

Causal chains,policy trade offs and sustainability: Analysing land (mis)use in seven countries in the South

The need to enhance sustainable development of land use is more urgent than ever; specifically in developing countries where poverty and land degradation are often interlinked. To promote a common understanding of land use problems by experts, stakeholders and decision makers, it is essential to understand the system characteristics, including the complex feedbacks between drivers and impacts. To enhance sustainable development, appropriate policies need to be identified. In this paper, we analysed and compared seven case studies in Kenya, Mali, Tunisia, China, India, Indonesia and Brazil, representing different biophysical and socio-economic conditions and challenges. We analysed Driver Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) story lines of the land use problems, policy priorities and value trade-offs as identified by stakeholders and experts in National Policy Forums. Important drivers of land use change impacting main land use problems among the case studies were economic growth, technological development, immigration and agricultural intensification, in addition to existing policies. Of the latter the most important were related to domestic support through various forms of subsidies or access to credit, land tenure polices and liberalization policies. In the policy prioritization, the value trade-offs made by the National Policy Forums emphasize the environment rather than increased economic production. It is recognized that the environment needs to be improved to maintain and improve economic production in the long term, both in agriculture and in other sectors.     

Navigating conflicting landscape aspirations: Application of a photo-based Q-method in Transylvania (Central Romania)

In combination, the economic realities brought about by globalization, and the sustainability goals set by the European Union, translate into contradictory challenges for European cultural landscapes. With its high natural and cultural diversity, Transylvania (Central Romania) is facing the choice between development based on a “production for profit” logic, with the risks of a liberalized land market, versus a largely untested development pathway based on sustainability, landscape multifunctionality and conservation. In the context of these largely externally imposed and contradictory development pathways, clarifying the viewpoints and preferences of local people is important, and may help explain the outcomes of past policies, as well as inform future interventions. We undertook a photograph-based Q methodology study – interviewing 129 residents from 30 villages – to understand and explore the diverse range of landscape preferences held by locals in Southern Transylvania. We clarified these preferences by identifying groups of participants who shared similar viewpoints regarding local landscapes and their changing purpose. Our findings revealed five different “preference narratives” about Transylvanian landscapes, namely (1) landscapes for prosperity and economic growth; (2) landscapes for traditions and balanced lifestyles; (3) landscapes for human benefit; (4) landscapes for farming; and (5) landscapes for nature. Our systematic assessment of narratives showed areas of consensus and disagreement among participants. We relate the five preference narratives to current management approaches targeting rural landscapes. We conclude by suggesting policy approaches to tackle the diversity of opinions and interests found in this culturally and ecologically diverse landscape. Important policy priorities include fostering economic diversification and improving social capital.     

SOME DEVELOPMENTS IN SCOTTISH FARMING SINCE THE WAR

The paper takes a panoramic view of Scottish farming since the war and considers in turn developments in the three major sectors, namely of livestock rearing in the hills and uplands and of dairying and arable farming in the lowlands. During this period, hill and upland farming has operated within a consistent long-term policy framework designed to achieve comprehensive rehabilitation of these areas. The reasons why this policy has not so far succeeded are examined. The more recent changes in policy for these areas are referred to, which at one and the same time have enlarged the agricultural role of the hills and uplands and greatly increased the need for adjustment and innovation in their farming practices. Turning to lowland farming, the paper refers particularly to developments in the case of milk and beef production and in arable farming and makes some contrasts of administrative and policy significance with corresponding English farming. The last part of the paper discusses some of the dificulties in achieving a balance between stability and efficiency in agricultural policy.     

Evaluating the conformity of informal land subdivision with the planning law in Benin metropolis

Town planning law is a regulatory framework for guiding the spatial growth of cities. As a land subdivision regulation, it embraces all development parameters in urban areas. But locally adopted land subdivision standards appear incompatible with the existing Planning Law. Evaluating the conformity of informal land subdivision standards for residential and non-residential uses with those of the existing Planning Law, land subdivision attributes were collected from four neighbourhoods and compared with the minimum approved standards. Independent-sample t-test statistics for each of the selected neighbourhoods shows no significant difference in their Mean Scores. The significant values (two-tailed) in the t-test output tables of the selected communities were consistently above the required cut-off of α = 0.05 which suggest that informal land subdivision attributes statistically conform with those of the Planning Law. Key planning implications of unplanned land use patterns that have emerged and policy options to tackle them were suggested.     

To populate or preserve? Evolving political-demographic and environmental paradigms in Israeli land-use policy

There has been a recent proliferation of national land-use policies that emphasize protecting open space and ecosystem integrity. However, countries grappling with internal political conflict, or that are engaged in military conflicts with neighboring countries, have priorities that focus on control of land in areas where state sovereignty is perceived to be threatened. These two concerns, political-demographic control and environmental protection, create very different paradigms for how to think about open space policy. The objective of this paper is to consider the impact of competing paradigms in land-use policy formulation and implementation—one that encourages sprawl and the other that encourages compact development and the preservation of open space. We use Israel as a case study where both political demography and environmental land-use paradigms are currently influencing policy and planning. We explore the historical evolution of both land-use paradigms and consider how they are currently competing in the formulation and execution of land-use policy decisions. We consider how these distinct priorities are playing out in current discourse and policy implementation, and characterize the past, current and prospective future physical outcomes of policies on the landscape. Our goal is to alert policy makers and land-use scholars of the subtle and contradictory influence of political-demographic land-use priorities with regard to their potential impact on the successful implementation of environmental policies. The Israeli case study is indicative of a diversity of countries that have a history of political-demographic land-use policies, but have also begun to adopt environmentally motivated policies.     

Reconciling moral and legal collective entitlement: Implications for community-based land reform

This paper discusses the drawing and contesting of social boundaries in the enactment of collective land rights, and the implications for land reform policies based around the notion of ‘community’ entitlement. Drawing on recent research in the crofting areas of Scotland, the paper explores the tensions arising when legal collective rights—or proposed changes to them—do not coincide with perceived moral claims to land. Examining the enactment of existing collective rights demonstrates how contested moral assumptions underpinning crofting identities, discourses and land use practices qualify and disqualify individuals as members of an imagined ‘crofting community’, and shape de facto access to and control over land-based resources. Some of the key policy implications of these findings are discussed with particular reference to Scottish land reform.     

Valuing a Natura 2000 network site to inform land use options using a discrete choice experiment: An illustration from the Basque Country

One of the main problems that public institutions face in the management of protected areas, such as the European Natura 2000 network, is determining how to design and implement sustainable management plans that account for the wide range of marketed and non-marketed benefits they provide to society. This paper presents an application of a stated preference valuation approach aimed at evaluating the social preferences of the population of the Basque Country, Spain, for the key attributes of a regional Natura 2000 network site. According to our results, individuals’ willingness-to-pay (WTP) is higher for attributes associated with non-use values (native tree species and biodiversity conservation) than for attributes associated with use values (agricultural development and commercial forestry). The paper concludes that management policies related to Natura 2000 network sites should account for both for the importance of non-use values and the heterogeneity of the population's preferences in order to minimize potential land use conflicts.     

Gender inequalities in ownership and control of land in Africa: myth and reality

Lack of clarity behind measurement and interpretation of statistics on gender and land leads to an inability to clearly articulate a policy response to the potential inequalities faced by women and men. This article sets out to explore, conceptually and empirically, the levels and relative inequalities in land rights between women and men in African countries. The first section of the article engages in a conceptual discussion of how to measure gendered‐land outcomes, what ownership and control mean in different contexts, and why attention to these factors is important for the development of gender and land statistics. The second section of the article systematically reviews existing evidence from microlevel large sample studies to summarize recent trends in land access, ownership, and control by sex. The third section presents new statistics from a variety of nationally representative and large‐scale unpublished data on gender and land in Africa. Results provide not only a nuanced understanding of the importance of measuring land indicators for gendered development in Africa and globally but also new statistics on a variety of land outcomes to aid stakeholders in the discussion of gender‐land inequalities.     

村民对村组织在农村土地综合整治工作中满意度的影响因素研究

研究目的：分析村民关于村组织在农村土地综合整治工作中满意度的影响因素,探索农村土地整治工作的村级长效运行和高效管理机制,为后续土地整治工作提供参考和借鉴。研究方法：典型调研,Logistic 回归分析法。研究结果：财务收支透明问题、安置房是否有产权证和生活压力问题是影响土地整治过程中村民满意度的显著性因素。研究结论：基层村组织要重视土地综合整治工作各阶段的宣传和总结,做好土地流转与引进产业工作,完善基层村组织构架,增加工作的透明度。     

Willingness to Pay for Agricultural Land Preservation and Policy Process Attributes: Does the Method Matter?

This article examines relationships between willingness to pay for land preservation and policy process attributes. The approach departs from traditional welfare assessments in that it does not constrain attributes of the policy process to be utility-neutral. Results indicate policy process attributes may influence utility in some circumstances, even after controlling for the influence of land use outcomes often correlated with specific policy techniques. Results further imply that in some cases, even comprehensive specification of land use outcomes by stated preference instruments may be insufficient to prevent systematic shifts in willingness to pay related to unspecified, yet assumed, policy process attributes.     

Tackling landslide risk: Helping land use policy to reflect unplanned housing realities in the Eastern Caribbean

Landslide risk reduction in developing countries is preferable to disaster remediation and recovery, in both social and economic terms. The implementation of landslide preventative measures is closely related to the development of ‘good practice’ in land use management, at government and community levels, especially in the face of rapid and unplanned urbanisation. These areas of poverty and vulnerability to ‘natural’ hazards present a challenging environment for which to develop realistic land use policies and practices. There is little evidence of on-the-ground delivery of landslide risk reduction. However, scientifically based landslide risk reduction strategies can be effective. In the Eastern Caribbean construction of drainage networks in communities afforded an improvement in slope stability – after a 1 in 100-year rainfall event there were no landslides on previously unstable slopes in densely populated urban communities. This has been recognised in policy terms in the first ever Caribbean-wide, 5-year risk reduction programme. Such evidence represents an important first step in developing realistic land use policies for landslide-prone areas occupied by those migrating to urban centres in the Eastern Caribbean.