Nonlinear Exchange Rate Adjustment and the Monetary Model

Although the empirical literature has delivered evidence in favor of nonlinearities in nominal and real exchange rate adjustment, the corresponding mechanisms with respect to the relationship between nominal exchange rates and fundamentals in general have rarely been put under any close scrutiny. This paper extends the work of other authors, who estimate exponential smooth transition autoregressive models to deviations of the exchange rate from monetary fundamentals. Using monthly data from 1976:01 to 2010:12 for the USA, UK, and Japan, this paper first adopts a cointegrated vector autoregression (VAR) framework to test for the multivariate validity of the monetary model by applying restrictions on the long‐run relationships. Then, nonlinear vector error correction models are estimated to tackle the question of whether the adjustment of the nominal exchange rate with respect to those relationships follows a nonlinear path.     

Nonlinearity and time-variation in the monetary model of exchange rates

In this paper we analyze the existence of nonlinear relationships between macroeconomic fundamentals and exchange rates for some major industrialized countries using an error correction model with time-varying parameters for the post Bretton Woods period. We find that inflation rate differentials with respect to the US inflation rate are the driving forces for the nonlinear relationships in the monetary model for exchange rates for the data from Germany, the UK, Canada, France and Italy. In addition to the variables in the traditional monetary model, also the relative interest rates are relevant in determining exchange rate changes only when the inflation differentials are either very large or very small. In contrast to previous studies we find significant long-run effects in the error correction representation of the monetary model for exchange rates when the nonlinear dynamics is taken into account in the analysis.     

Non‐linearities,Business Cycles and Exchange Rates

This paper conjoins the disparate empirical literatures on exchange rate models and monetary policy models, with special reference to the importance of output, inflation gaps and exchange rate targets. It focuses in on the dollar/euro exchange rate, and the differential results arising from using alternative measures of the output gap for the US and for the Euro area. A comparison of ‘in‐sample’ prediction against alternative models of exchange rates is also conducted. In addition to predictive power, I also assess the various models' plausibility as economic explanations for exchange rate movements, based on the conformity of coefficient estimates with priors. Taylor rule fundamentals appear to do as well, or better, than other models at the 1‐year horizon.     

Sources of exchange rate fluctuations with Taylor rule fundamentals

This paper investigates the sources of exchange rate fluctuations when monetary policy follows a Taylor rule interest rate reaction function. We first present a simple dynamic exchange rate model with Taylor rule fundamentals which is triangular in the long-run impacts of shocks to the output market, the interest rate differential, and the Taylor rule. We then proceed to assess the relative importance of various shocks in exchange rate determination by estimating a structural VAR with long-run identification restrictions based on the triangular structure of the model. We find demand shocks to be less important than in earlier VAR studies, with both supply shocks and nominal shocks explaining a substantial part of real exchange rate fluctuations.     

Revisiting the exchange rate disconnect puzzle

One of the major anomalies in International Macroeconomics is the persistent finding that the exchange rate has no empirical relationship with a variety of macroeconomic fundamentals. Dubbed the ‘exchange rate disconnect puzzle’, this article examines this issue for five Australian dollar bilateral exchange rates, using quarterly data for the period 1984:1–2015:4. A novel feature of this article is that it departs from the extant literature by using a different approach to testing for cointegration. The results show that the exchange rates and fundamentals move together in the long run. Furthermore, the results show that fundamentals Granger cause exchange rates, both in the short run and the long run.     

On the endogeneity of exchange rate regimes

The literature has identified three main approaches to account for the way exchange rate regimes are chosen: (i) the optimal currency area theory; (ii) the financial view, which highlights the consequences of international financial integration; and (iii) the political view, which stresses the use of exchange rate anchors as credibility enhancers in politically challenged economies. Using de facto and de jure regime classifications, we test the empirical relevance of these approaches separately and jointly. We find overall empirical support for all of them, although the incidence of financial and political aspects varies substantially between industrial and non-industrial economies. Furthermore, we find that the link between de facto regimes and their underlying fundamentals has been surprisingly stable over the years, suggesting that the global trends often highlighted in the literature can be traced back to the evolution of their natural determinants, and that actual policies have been less influenced by the frequent twist and turns in the exchange rate regime debate.     

Nonlinear adjustment in the real dollar–euro exchange rate: The role of the productivity differential as a fundamental

In this paper we analyze the influence of productivity differentials in the dynamics of the real dollar–euro exchange rate. Using nonlinear procedures for the estimation and testing of ESTAR models during the period 1970–2009 we find that the dollar–euro real exchange rate shows nonlinear mean reversion towards the fundamentals represented by the productivity differential. In addition, we provide evidence about the ability of this variable to capture the overvaluation and undervaluation of the dollar against the euro.     

Causal relations between nominal exchange rates and monetary fundamentals in Central and Eastern European countries

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the causal relations between nominal exchange rates and monetary fundamentals. The analysis is conducted using panel quarterly data from the period 2001–12 for Central and Eastern European countries (including Turkey) with relatively flexible exchange rate regimes. The paper reconnects the empirical literature on exchange rates in Central and Eastern European countries with the most recent findings on exchange rate determination in advanced economies. Kóyna's approach, which accounts for linkages between countries, is used in the study. The main findings indicate the existence of causal relations running from both nominal exchange rates to monetary fundamentals and in the opposite direction as well as the existence of a relatively strong link between exchange rates and differentials in the relative price of non‐tradables.     

Testing the bounds: Empirical behavior of target zone fundamentals

Standard target zone exchange rate models are based on nonlinear functions of unobserved economic fundamentals, which are assumed to be bounded, similarly to the target zone exchange rates themselves. Using a novel estimation and testing strategy, I show how this key but often overlooked assumption may be tested. Empirical results cast doubt on its validity in practice, providing a reason for well-documented empirical difficulties of these models in the literature.     

Examining the evidence of purchasing power parity by recursive mean adjustment

This paper revisits the empirical evidence of purchasing power parity under the current float by recursive mean adjustment (RMA) proposed by So and Shin (1999). We first report superior power of the RMA-based unit root test in finite samples relative to the conventional augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) test via Monte Carlo experiments for 16 linear and nonlinear autoregressive data generating processes. We find that the more powerful RMA-based unit root test rejects the null hypothesis of a unit root for 16 out of 20 current float real exchange rates relative to the US dollar, while the ADF test rejects only 5 at the 10% significance level. We also find that the computationally simple RMA-based asymptotic confidence interval can provide useful information regarding the half-life of the real exchange rate.     

Behavioural equilibrium exchange rate and total misalignment: evidence from the euro exchange rate

In the present paper we attempt to investigate whether the nominal exchange rate of the euro against the currencies of the four major trading partners of the eurozone, namely China, Japan, the UK and the USA, converges or not to its equilibrium level. Applying recent unit root and system cointegration techniques in the presence of structural shifts in the data, our results indicate that there exist an equilibrium relationship between each of the euro/yuan, euro/yen, euro/UK pound and euro/US dollar nominal exchange rates and the fundamentals defined by the monetary model. Following these results, our modified Behavioural Equilibrium Exchange Rate model suggests that at the end of the estimated period, the euro/Chinese yuan and the euro/UK pound nominal exchange rates follow an equilibrium process. Our empirical results also imply that the single European currency is considered as overvalued against the US dollar, while it is considered as undervalued against the Japanese currency.     

Exchange rate dynamics and currency unification: The Ostmark-DM rate

This paper estimates a simple model of the exchange rate between the East and West German Mark immediately preceding German monetary union. Although there is a theoretical literature on exchange rate dynamics when the introduction of a fixed exchange rate is anticipated, the absence of data has limited empirical work on the subject. We show that in the first part of the sample, the DM-Ostmark exchange rate behaves as a random walk. In the second half, when monetary union appeared more likely, the exchange rate behaves as a weighted average of fundamentals and the expected “terminal” exchange rate.     

FORECASTING THE UK/US EXCHANGE RATE WITH DIVISIA MONETARY MODELS AND NEURAL NETWORKS

This paper compares the UK/US exchange rate forecasting performance of linear and nonlinear models based on monetary fundamentals, to a random walk (RW) model. Structural breaks are identified and taken into account. The exchange rate forecasting framework is also used for assessing the relative merits of the official Simple Sum and the weighted Divisia measures of money. Overall, there are four main findings. First, the majority of the models with fundamentals are able to beat the RW model in forecasting the UK/US exchange rate. Second, the most accurate forecasts of the UK/US exchange rate are obtained with a nonlinear model. Third, taking into account structural breaks reveals that the Divisia aggregate performs better than its Simple Sum counterpart. Finally, Divisia‐based models provide more accurate forecasts than Simple Sum‐based models provided they are constructed within a nonlinear framework.     

Cointegration,structural breaks and monetary fundamentals of the Dollar/Yen Exchange

This paper reexamines the empirical performance of monetary exchange rate models for the dollar/yen exchange rate. We focus on the character of a potential long-run relationship between exchange rates and fundamentals. Using monthly data from 1976:01 to 2007:12 this paper applies a novel time-varying coefficient approach which allows a distinction between breaks in the cointegration vector and instabilities in the adjustment coefficients. We are able to show that most of the observed breakpoints can be traced back to major policy changes or specific economic developments. Our findings also show that macroeconomic fundamentals do matter for the U.S. dollar/Japanese yen exchange rate, but in different ways over different periods of time.     

Soft versus hard targets for exchange rate intervention

Exchange rate intervention by monetary authorities should defend a band not for the spot exchange rate, but for a moving average of its recent values. This target zone is soft, in that it allows greater short-run flexibility, but also rigorous: it still precludes any sustained easing of monetary policy. In comparison with conventional hard target zones for the spot exchange rate, we find considerable advantages for the rule we propose. In particular, without compromising long-run discipline, it increases resilience against speculative attacks, especially when shocks to exchange rate fundamentals are transitory.     

Internal and external exchange rate equilibrium in a cointegration framework. An application to the Spanish peseta

A simple cointegration methodology is used to compute the equilibrium real exchange rate for the peseta. The stock of foreign assets and the evolution of sectoral prices are considered to be the fundamentals for the real exchange rate. After testing for cointegration, we proceed to decompose the series into a permanent and a transitory component, following the method devised by Gonzalo and Granger. The permanent component of the real exchange rate corresponds to its (time-varying) equilibrium value, and the deviation of the actual real exchange rate from this equilibrium value gives an estimation of the degree of misalignment of the real exchange rate. By the end of the sample (1998:1), the peseta is estimated to be undervalued around 6%.     

Dynamic forecasting of monetary exchange rate models: Evidence from cointegration

The Frenkel-Bilson and Dornbusch-Frankel monetary exchange rate models are used to estimate the out-of-sample forecasting performance for the U.S. dollar/Canadian dollar exchange rate. By using Johansen's multivariate cointegration, up to three cointegrating vectors were found between the exchange rate and macroeconomic fundamentals. This means that there is a long-run relationship between the exchange rate and economic fundamentals. Based on error correction models, two monetary models outperform the random walk model at the three-, six-, and 12-month forecasting horizons. Therefore, monetary exchange rate models are still useful in forecasting exchange rates.     

Three measures of East Asian currency evaluation

One of the prominent explanations for the East Asian financial crises of 1997 relies upon East Asian currency overvaluation. However, most empirical studies of these crises do not undertake serious examination of whether these currencies were overvalued. In this article, three major approaches to identifying the equilibrium exchange rate are implemented: long-run purchasing power parity (PPP), a productivity-based model, and a monetary model of the nominal exchange rate. The PPP calculations indicate that as of May 1997, the Hong Kong dollar, baht, ringgit, and peso were overvalued, and the won undervalued. In a framework that explicitly accounts for the role of productivity, substantial overvaluation of the peso is detected, but an undervaluation of the won is also uncovered. Misalignments of the ringgit and baht are small. Finally, the estimated equilibrium rates from a monetary model do not imply much deviation from short-run equilibrium at the end of June 1997. A conclusion of substantial overvaluation on the eve of the East Asian currency turmoil is not very plausible, suggesting that some alternate mechanism for generating crises - other than one involving the conventional macroeconomic fundamentals - was at work.     

Local Currency Pricing versus Producer Currency Pricing: Direct Evidence from German Exporters

Abstract. In new open-economy macroeconomic models, the assumption on the pricing behavior of firms in international trade plays a central role. Whether firms apply producer currency pricing (PCP) or local currency pricing (LCP) crucially affects, for example, the design of optimal monetary policy or the choice of the optimal exchange rate system. However, empirical evidence has so far been mixed and is furthermore mostly of an indirect nature. This paper draws direct evidence on the price-setting behavior of German exporters from a questionnaire-based survey. We find that PCP applies in more integrated markets. Differences between LCP firms and PCP firms mainly exist with respect to the use of mark-ups and in the validity of the law of one price for their respective products.     

The Optimal Degree of Exchange Rate Flexibility: a Target Zone Approach*

This paper presents a benchmark model that rationalizes the choice of the degree of exchange rate flexibility. We show that the monetary authority may gain efficiency by reducing volatility of both the exchange rate and the interest rate at the same time. Furthermore, the model is consistent with some known stylized facts in the empirical literature on target zones that previous models were not able to generate jointly—namely, the positive relation between the exchange rate and the interest rate differential, the degree of nonlinearity of the function linking the exchange rate to fundamentals, and the shape of the exchange rate stochastic distribution.