Linkages between the farm and nonfarm sectors at the household level in rural Ghana: a consistent stochastic distance function approach

This article explores the effects within households of an expanding rural nonfarm (RNF) sector in Ghana. We ask whether the growing RNF sector allows for economies of diversification within farms, how it affects household input demands, and whether it has measurable effects in overall household production efficiency. We explore the intrahousehold linkages between agricultural and RNF activities, first assuming perfectly competitive input and output markets and then with market failures, in particular missing labor and credit markets. We then measure these linkages using a household level input distance function, finding high levels of inefficiency in Ghanaian farms. Also, there are cost-complementarities between the RNF sector and the agricultural sector, particularly with food crops in which the poorest tend to specialize. The expansion of the RNF sector increases demand for most inputs including agricultural land. Finally, we show that smaller farms tend to be more efficient, and that RNF output is helping the farm household to become more efficient, but the latter result is not robust.     

The consequences of land-use change and water demands in Central Mongolia

After two decades of decreasing agricultural activities, in 2008 the Mongolian government started the “Third Campaign of Reclaiming Virgin Lands”, aiming at massive expansion and intensification of the agricultural sector. This policy motivated the study presented here, for which we used an integrated modelling approach to investigate the feedbacks between land-use dynamics, agricultural management and biophysical conditions, with a strong focus on assessing availability of water for irrigation. Our simulation results clearly show that under the current extend of irrigated agriculture in several years water demands exceeded water availability, indicating an overexploitation of water resources, mainly in the period 1995–2006. Consequently, the targeted expansion of agricultural water use will either severely deplete water resources with potential negative effects on other users and the environment, or policies are needed to mitigate or avoid potential adverse effects. As simultaneously Mongolian authorities struggle to implement integrated water resources management (IWRM), the latter might provide monitoring concepts and regulations needed to minimise the potential gap between water demands and availability. In this context, integrated modelling could be a scientific tool to support future land and water management decisions, as researchers already started to integrate views and demands of Mongolian authorities into scenario and model development (identified during stakeholder workshops), and will continue to do so during the coming years of collaborative research.     

Compliance and market exclusion in Brazilian agriculture: Analysis and implications for “soft” governance

“Soft” or “hybrid” governance holds considerable promise in attempts to reconfigure state-market-society relationships toward improved environmental outcomes. “Soft” governance processes in Brazil's globally competitive, high-input/output agriculture sector have major implications for landuse policies. Here we identify and analyze two emergent processes, a compliance regime and bioregion-based market exclusion approach, that stand out amid a background of conflicts between agricultural land uses and environmental regulation. We address the effectiveness of “soft” governance, using a framework that focuses on interactions among state and non-state actors, use of geographic information, relations to global processes, and discourse. These policies may play an important role in bridging the divide between environmental and agricultural interests, but market and state actors, and the uneven effects of globalization, will influence effectiveness. Our framework for analyzing governance processes should complement future work that directly measures environmental outcomes.     

Allocable fixed inputs as a cause of joint production: an empirical investigation

Leathers (1991) shows that while the existence of allocable fixed inputs can cause joint production (as in Shumway, Pope and Nash, 1984), it will not necessarily lead to joint production. The extent to which allocable fixed inputs cause joint production in agriculture is an empirical question. This paper offers an empirical answer. By estimating a short-run joint cost function, it is possible to identify levels of outputs for which joint production may be optimal in the short run but not in the long run. Only in these output regions will there be jointness caused by allocable fixed inputs. For the data in this paper (160 Wisconsin farms), these output regions are very small; thus allocable fixed inputs do not appear to be an important cause of jointness for these farms. Technical causes of jointness appear to be a significant cause of joint production.     

Tare land in Flemish horticulture

The annual agricultural census in Belgium delivers quantitative data of net and additional areas of land used for agriculture and horticulture. We introduce the term ‘tare land’ to indicate the latter as the area of land fragments not directly supporting crops or fodder, at farm level or at higher (landscape, region) level. For spatial planning and zoning purposes data on gross agricultural area (being the sum of net and tare areas) are required. However, the quality of the tare data is not documented or even questioned. In Belgian and international scientific and grey literature, little information on tare is available. In this paper we define two classes of tare, functional tare (fTare) and plan tare (pTare). fTare encompasses the sum of the area of all additional land used by farmers for professional purpose or closely associated to the net agricultural area but not directly used for the production of food, fodder or industrial crops. Plan tare (pTare) is defined as these parts of the statutory agricultural area not specifically used in farming, such as public roads and inclusions of non-farming buildings. By means of a GPS-survey and interviews with farm managers, we used two methods to survey net and tare areas of land. On one hand we surveyed the land within farm enterprises: 3 open air horticultural farms, 6 greenhouse horticultural farms and one mixed farm (open air horticulture and greenhouse). On the other hand we surveyed 10 segments of 25 ha, all situated in one municipality within a major horticultural region of Flanders (northern region of Belgium). fTare areas account on average for 21% of the total farm area in the case of open air horticulture whereas the fTare area is 39% in case of greenhouse horticultural farms. These averages are significantly different. The mixed farm had an fTare area of 32%. Within areas designated for agriculture plan tare is 44%. Hence only 56% of the land with an agricultural destination is effectively used for agriculture. These figures illustrate the spatial importance of tare areas and the spatially extremely scattered organisation of horticulture in the study area. Knowledge on quality and nature of tare areas is important for multi-objective spatial planning in which economic and ecological sustainability of agriculture is considered.     

Land suitability,water balance and agricultural technology as a Geographic-Technological Index to support regional planning and economic studies

Land suitability, water balance and agricultural technological inputs are important characteristics of the soil as a natural resource and can play a significant role in the agricultural production and productivity. Based on these characteristics, a Geographic and Technological Index, the GeoTec Index, is proposed in order to help detecting regional agricultural income inequalities and also to be used as a geographic variable in economic studies. The GeoTec Index is built as a weighted average of three sub indices, namely, Land Suitability, Hydrological and Technological Indices. The Land Suitability Index is based on the agricultural suitability or the aptitude of a given land to support a defined agricultural use. The Hydrological Index (HyI) is based on a water balance which determines the potential and actual amounts of evapotranspiration and water surplus, or excess of precipitation over evapotranspiration, and corresponds to a number that represents either the annual soil water excesses or deficits. And the Technological Index is the sum of several sub indices, based on technological inputs used in the agriculture, such as soil conservation practices, farmer’s technical assistance, use of soil fertilizers and correctives, presence of electric power, use of pest and disease control and use of irrigation. The Geographic and Technological Index (GeoTec) is a combination of the Land Suitability, Hydrological and Technological Indices and it is calculated with data from Minas Gerais State, Brazil, for the period of 1990–2001. The criterion for the regional subdivision of Minas Gerais State was the one proposed by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), which divides the state into 66 micro regions. The highest values of GeoTec Index are obtained at micro regions of the most developed part of the state, whereas the lowest values of the GeoTec Index are found in micro regions located in the poorest part of Minas Gerais State. There was a strong and positive relationship between the GeoTec Index and the productivity of grains and, at the same time, there is a strong negative relationship between the GeoTec Index and the percentage of poor people in Minas Gerais State micro regions. The GeoTec Index can be a powerful instrument for detecting regional inequalities and to implement public policies as an attempt to decrease the agricultural income disparities among regions.     

Specialization,diversification, and productivity: a panel data analysis of rice farms in Korea

This article examines the microeconomics of productivity associated with specialization/diversification in production activities, with an application to Korean rice farms. Korean rice farms tend to be very small and highly specialized. Our analysis examines the productivity effects associated with both farm size and farm specialization/diversification in Korean agriculture. Relying on farm‐level panel data, the analysis studies farm productivity in a multi‐input multi‐output context, accounting not only for changes in inputs and technical change in rice production, but also for the role of diversification in the production of other crops in current and previous periods. We find positive but small productivity gains from farm diversification. These gains come mostly from complementarity effects across farm outputs, with minimal effect of scale economies. The positive complementarity effects work against nonconvexity effects, which provide strong productivity incentives for rice farms to specialize.     

Agriculture and proximity to roads: How should farmers and retailers adapt? Examples from the Ile-de-France region

The present study was carried out in the Ile-de-France region surrounding Paris, which is both the biggest conurbation in France and a large agricultural area. In areas such as these, airborne pollutants from road traffic may adversely affect the quality of the food produced by farms close by. This raises questions about the spatial compatibility of farming and road networks, although there is currently no scientific consensus concerning potential health risks for producers and consumers. Some actors in agricultural supply chains have tried to limit potential risks by producing technical guidelines, including isolation distances between major roads and fields farmed under contract. This paper analyses these “isolation distances”, using approaches from the agricultural and social sciences: surveys on stakeholders in agribusiness and on farmers, and a cartographic simulation submitted to the surveyed farmers for discussion. The results show that isolation distances serve to create market opportunities in a context of market segmentation, or are applied as a precautionary principle. Though not a widespread practice, safety distances could have considerable impacts on farms in terms of both technical management and total farm area, thus calling for further scientific research on this issue.     

The Effects of Direct Payments on Technical Efficiency of Irish Beef Farms: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis

The 2003 Mid‐Term Review of the CAP sought to refocus the EU's farm support policy to foster a more competitive and market‐orientated agricultural sector. The foundation of this reform comprised the introduction of decoupled payments to farmers, replacing the EU's previous system of supports that were directly linked to production of designated crops and livestock. This paper explores the effect of coupled payments and their subsequent replacement by decoupled support, on the technical efficiency of specialist beef farms in Ireland. Given the high reliance of beef farmers in Ireland on CAP payments, the decoupling of payments has been especially important for the sector. A stochastic production frontier is estimated using a panel dataset comprising detailed accountancy data for Irish beef farms between the years 2000 and 2013. Our results indicate that technical efficiency in the beef farming sector has been consistently poor, with an average efficiency score of only 0.53 during the period analysed. However, we found that direct income received in the form of coupled payments had a positive impact on farm efficiency, and that this positive effect was maintained after their replacement with decoupled income support.     

Examining the relationship between farm size and productive efficiency: a Bayesian directional distance function approach

Achieving sustainable food security and increased farm income will depend on how efficient production systems are in converting available inputs to produce outputs. Using data from Malawi, we estimate a Bayesian directional technology distance function to examine the relationship between farm size and technical efficiency. Our results support the existence of an inverse relationship between farm size and productive efficiency, where small farms are more efficient than large farms. On average, farms exhibit inefficiency levels of 60%, suggesting that productivity could be improved substantially. Improving productive efficiency and food security will require farms to operate in ways where the size of cultivated area is matched by nonland production inputs such as labor, fertilizer, and improved seeds. The results highlight the need for policies that could incentivize farmers to adopt productivity‐enhancing technologies and, where possible, to allocate excess land to lease markets.     

Geography of plant breeding systems,agroclimatic similarity,and agricultural productivity: evidence from Nigeria

Agroclimatic conditions and agricultural research and development (R&D) including plant breeding activities by the public sector are some of the most significant exogenous factors in the agricultural sector. However, the effects of the interactions between these two sets of factors on agricultural productivity have not been studied widely in developing countries, despite potentially important implications on their plant breeding strategies. Using three‐wave panel data of agricultural households in Nigeria and spatial data on various agroclimatic parameters, we show that agricultural productivity and technical efficiency at the agricultural household level is significantly positively affected by the similarity of agroclimatic conditions between locations where agricultural households are located, and locations where major plant breeding institutes are located. These results hold after controlling for various socioeconomic characteristics of these households, including their physical distances to the breeding institutes. Findings are robust across parametric and nonparametric specifications such as Data Envelopment Method, and after addressing potential endogeneity of agroclimatic similarity and agricultural inputs variables in the production function. Productivity effects due to the locations of plant breeding institutes and resulting agroclimatic similarity can be potentially sizable given Nigeria's past productivity growth speed.     

农业地域功能的时空格局与演进特征 ——以106国道沿线典型样带区为例

研究目的：揭示不同时间段农业地域多功能的地域差异和演进特征,提出农业地域多功能协同发展的对策,为科学引导地区分工、强化主导功能、凸显地域价值、促进区域协调发展提供科学依据。研究方法：农业地域多功能性指数计算模型,农业地域多功能演变的时空差异诊断模型,Gi*指数模型。研究结果：（1）农产品供给功能提升幅度较大,其重心进一步向平原农区集中;京津冀都市区、邯郸经济区劳动力就业和社会保障功能大幅度提升;山地丘陵区生态保育功能进一步凸显;文化传承和休闲功能优势区向各市辖区及其周边县域集中。（2）京津冀都市区、邯郸市及其周边地区为多功能指数热点区,而京津冀都市区与邯郸经济区之间的县市以及样带河南段大部分县市为多功能指数冷点区。研究结论：106国道沿线典型区不同类型区农业地域主导功能定位不同,需借助财政转移支付、生态补偿、粮食补贴等政策手段引导地域功能与社会经济需求、地域资源禀赋相适应,促进主导功能区建设和区域协调发展。     

Impact of farm management diversity on the environmental and economic performance of the wheat–maize cropping system in the North China Plain

To assess the attainable greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential from crop production in China's most important grain production region, the North China Plain (NCP), single farm environmental and economic performances of 65 winter wheat–summer maize (WW–SM) producing households were determined. The results revealed a huge heterogeneity among farms, with up to five times higher environmental impact of worst compared to best performing farms. Astonishingly no trade-off between productivity and sustainability could be identified in the region, with high-yield farms emitting no different amounts of GHGs per hectare compared to low-yield farms. Building on cluster analysis, with farms grouped according to their economic and environmental performance into ‘poor’, ‘fair' and ‘good’ producers, the regional GHG mitigation potential was estimated. Under the scenario assumption that all grain in the NCP is produced under ‘good’ production conditions, 21% and 7% of GHG could be mitigated in wheat and maize production, respectively. The study shows that in the NCP, exemplary for China's rapidly developing agricultural sector, the crop management skills of a substantial share of farmers could obviously not keep pace with the massive input intensification. Among others, farmer–farmer trainings are recommended to close the gap in crop production performance among producers.     

AN INTERMEDIATE INPUT MODEL OF DAIRY PRODUCTION USING COMPLEX SURVEY DATA

Agricultural production is often characterised by multiple inputs and multiple outputs to multiple production processes. Where an output from one process is used as an input to another, this output is called an intermediate product. This is a common situation when a farm produces both crops and livestock. The analysis of production efficiency is important for the evaluation of agricultural policy, but until recently, no methods have explicitly included intermediate products. This study applies a non-parametric technique of efficiency measurement which includes intermediate products. The data set is a sample of dairy farms drawn using a complex survey design. The use of non-parametric efficiency measurement and the subsequent application of bootstrapping and kernel density estimation to the results allow inferences to be drawn concerning the whole population from which the sample was drawn. We find that the decomposition of production into subproduction processes reduces the dimensions of problem specification, with the effect that a larger number of variables may be usefully included in the model.     

From fork to farm: Impacts of more sustainable diets in the EU-27 on the agricultural sector

The implications of dietary changes for the environment and for human health are well documented, but the impacts on the agricultural sector are less well researched. We fill this gap by specifying scenarios in which European consumers' diets approximate the EAT-Lancet dietary recommendations to varying degrees and estimate the effects on agricultural production, incomes and emissions using an agro-economic modelling framework. The combination of different models allows for a detailed assessment of consequences for the agricultural sector from the global through European NUTS2 level to the farm level at different time scales. Shifting European consumption towards the EAT-Lancet recommendations leads to decreasing production of animal-based products, while production of fruits and vegetables increases sharply. The results indicate that the agricultural sector could benefit from a dietary shift, though the results are mixed at country, regional and farm levels. In particular, countries and regions that are highly specialised in animal farming are likely to lose income—at least in the short run—while regions with higher shares of vegetable and fruit farms can expect income gains. In Germany, pig and poultry farms may experience losses of up to 34% of their income, whereas farms with a high share of vegetables could gain more than 30% in income. Our results have implications for the policies to assist these extensive structural adjustments in response to widespread dietary changes.     

Is there a future for small farms in developed countries? Evidence from the French case

This research aims to identify the specific characteristics of small farms in developed countries and the factors that influence their survival and growth. Using the case of France, we employ statistical and econometric analysis of data from the Farm Structure Survey (N = 70,000) for the period 2000–2007. The principal findings suggest that small farms are no more likely than other farms to employ “alternative” strategies to the predominant model of increasing farm size, nor are they more likely to diversify on‐farm activities or operate under quality‐labeled production systems, with the notable exception of organic agriculture. However, where small farms do adopt or practice these activities, they are seen to have a favorable effect in ensuring their survival and growth. In contrast, we are unable to conclude that pluriactivity of farm households has a positive impact on the survival of small enterprises. The effect of geographical location on small farms is largely expressed in their concentration in mountainous or disadvantaged regions. Overall, the trajectory of small farms is marked by farm exit, principally as the result of farmers retiring at the end of their careers. The small farm sector is also revitalized by both larger farms declining and thus being reclassified as small farms, as well as the progressive entry into agriculture of small farm holders whose income was previously derived largely off‐farm.     

十六、十七世纪江南的生态农业(下)

在十六、十七世纪的江南农业中，出现了一种新经营方式。这种经营方式体现了今日我们所说的生态农业的主要特点，通过改造资源，进行多样化的生产，同时利用食物链原理，对废物进行循环利用，从而降低了投入而增加的产出，达到了较高的生产率。这种生态农业最早出现在明代中期常熟的大经营中，明清之际时在嘉湖一带已相当普遍，并为小经营所采纳。这种生态农业在江南平原逐渐普及，为江南农业的发展起到了积极的作用。     

“Wilderness” – A designation for Central European landscapes?

The concept of “wilderness” has been intensively discussed as an approach for nature protection in Central Europe among managers of protected areas, decision makers, natural and social scientists. This paper discusses the various attempts for physical definitions for Central Europe. It examines, if “wilderness” a suitable expression for communicating different types of places designated “wilderness”, especially in the context of rising awareness and acceptance in all parts of society of the demands of the national strategies for protecting biodiversity. Literature surveys were carried out in order to find expert quotes on the physical definitions, spatial characteristics, and attributes of “wilderness”. For the analytical perception of the general public, a survey using opinion polls among visitors in the Müritz National Park in north-eastern Germany was carried out. A quantitative approach was chosen, and interviewees were selected on an objective, systematic basis. The paper demonstrates, that the wilderness discussion among experts in Central Europe lacks a common physical and spatial definition. It can be shown that there are strong ethical and religious, educational and cultural motifs in the demand for wilderness. For a broad range of laypersons interviewed in Müritz National Park, “wilderness” seems to be a suitable, positive label for wetlands, shorelines, large forests and remote mountain areas. Important key factors, aside from natural features, are few human traces, little infrastructure and few persons using an area, so that visitors experience a feeling of solitude.     

THE IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCED MEANS OF PRODUCTION IN UK AGRICULTURE

Neoclassical production theory assumes that outputs and inputs can be separated into two distinct commodity groups. However, this fails to take account of the presence of produced means of production in agriculture which undermine the ceteris paribus assumption on which partial equilibrium analysis is based-a criticism identified as part of the broader Sraffian critique of neoclassical economics. A simulation exercise designed to investigate the importance of produced inputs in UK agriculture found evidence of perverse aggregate supply response resulting from the use of feedgrain, an output from the cereal sector, as a produced input in the livestock sectors. This empirical result lends some support to the Sraffian analysis; however, it is suggested that the perversity arises from failure to take account of the produced input, and that computing ‘net output’