The human dimensions of wildlife tourism in a developing country: watching spinner dolphins at Lovina,Bali, Indonesia

The number of cetacean watching tourism operations in developing countries has doubled in the past decade. Practices are typically unregulated and not informed by research, especially research into the human dimensions of the tourist experience. Dolphin watching tourism at Lovina, Bali, started in the late 1980s when local fishers formed self-regulating cooperatives. Up to 180 dedicated operators use small fishing vessels to carry passengers to watch dolphins close to shore. Most tourists come from western countries, although the industry also attracts Asian visitors. Most visitors are tertiary-educated. Tourist satisfaction ranges from low to medium. While there was no significant difference between the average satisfaction of western and Asian tourists, the associated variables were different. The satisfaction of western tourists was associated with encounter management, preferred number of boats and the number of dolphins seen. Encounter management was the only variable associated with the satisfaction of Asian tourists. Satisfaction was positively associated with willingness to recommend the tour: western respondents who felt neutral to very comfortable with their dolphin encounters were more likely to promote the tour. Better understanding of the tourist experience is crucial in designing sustainable marine wildlife tourism in developing countries; such research appears to be rare.     

An Alternative Management Framework to Limit the Impact of SCUBA Divers on Coral Assemblages

This study investigates the relationship between the level of exposure to interpretive media and the cognition, affect and behaviour of zoo visitors, i.e. what they report knowing, feeling and doing following their interpretive experience at the zoo. Visitors were surveyed at the exit to a particular zoo experience, a recently opened lion exhibit that uses an array of static and face-to-face interpretive media to convey messages about the difficulties faced by lions, particularly when they come into contact with humans. A validated self-report instrument consisting of 29 items was used to capture ten cognitive, affective and behavioural indicators or outcomes of the interpretation. The 288 respondents experienced between one and four different interpretive media, and the results on every one of the ten indicators reveal that visitors' reported cognitive, affective and behavioural outcomes were greater, many with statistical significance, as the number of interpretive media increased. The findings confirm and extend previous research which found that the cognitive impact of interpretation was not only greater with multiple layers of interpretation but also suggested the need for further research with other types of interpretive media on other visitors and in a wider range of sustainable tourism contexts.     

Local discourses and international initiatives: sociocultural sustainability of tourism in Oulanka National Park,Finland

National parks have become important tourist attractions and tools for regional development. New international initiatives, such as PAN (Protected Area Network) Parks in Europe, now promote sustainable tourism in protected areas. This paper examines the sociocultural sustainability of tourism perceived by local stakeholders of Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The central question concerns the role of PAN Parks certification in community and tourism development. Four discourses were identified, based on 40 semi-structured interviews exploring different views on sociocultural development pertaining to tourism in the national park: (1) integrating nature-based tourism and conservation, (2) defending the rights of local people, (3) stressing the economic utilization of nature and (4) accepting tourism development and the national park. Although local stakeholders mostly have a positive perception of tourism in the park, it cannot be concluded whether the park facilitates development in a sustainable manner or not. Key problems identified are lack of participation opportunities and contradictions with traditional subsistence economies. The various positions of stakeholders in these discourses tend to influence their views on sustainability. Findings imply the necessity to monitor the distribution of benefits and burdens of park development holistically to multiple stakeholders.     

The sustainability–profitability trade-off in tourism: can it be overcome?

This paper answers key questions about personal and industry decision-making in implementing sustainable tourism. Being environmentally friendly is typically associated with sacrifice, including sacrifice of comfort (e.g. walking rather than driving), sacrifice of time (e.g. recycling garbage) or sacrifice of money (e.g. buying more expensive locally grown vegetables). Consequently, the tourism industry perceives sustainable tourism as a sacrificial touristic niche, one that is associated with additional cost but appears to attract customers who do not spend enough money to compensate for the extra effort. This paper explores a perceived trade-off between minimising environmental damage and maximising revenue, by finding market segments that are environmentally friendly and have high expenditures. An online survey was made of 1003 Australian domestic tourists. Results indicate that tourist segments vary significantly in terms of their environmental impacts and vacation expenditure. Six segments were identified. Two market segments, containing 40% of the total market, that leave small environmental footprints while maintaining high expenditure were found, indicating that market segmentation when coupled with marketing/demarketing policies can be used as a strategy complementary to the development of destination-based initiatives to reduce the environmental impact of tourism.     

Tourism,Marketing and Sustainable Development in the English National Parks: The Role of National Park Authorities

This paper examines the work of the English National Park Authorities (NPAs) in relation to aspects of the development of sustainable tourism. The NPAs have implicitly sought to achieve sustainable tourism development since the parks were first designated, striving to balance the needs of visitors and the environment within the context of living, working landscapes. Studies have revealed, however, that some NPAs are not fully championing sustainable tourism development. The paper examines the NPA's use of marketing and marketing perspectives in encouraging sustainable tourism, exploring attitudes, roles and activities. A diverse, piecemeal and sometimes underinformed approach is revealed. The paper concludes with ways forward for English NPAs and for other protected area management organisations.     

Assessing the sustainability of agritourism in the US: a comparison between agritourism and other farm entrepreneurial ventures

Diversifying on-farm enterprise portfolios, especially through agritourism, is claimed to increase farm revenues and help alleviate the economic problems of family farms. Thus, the adoption of agritourism in the US has steadily increased during recent years. Agritourism is also suggested to produce environmental and sociocultural benefits. To quantify these benefits, this study assessed the sustainability of agritourism farms, compared with other farm entrepreneurial ventures, using the “sustainable development” and “farm enterprise diversification” frameworks. Data from 873 US farms with a diversified entrepreneurial portfolio revealed that agritourism farms approach sustainability to a greater extent than their counterparts, producing multiple environmental, sociocultural and economic benefits for their farms, households and even society. Results suggest that agritourism, compared with other farm entrepreneurial ventures, is more successful in increasing farm profits, creating jobs and conserving the natural and cultural heritage. For example, 52.4% of agritourism farms have been within the same family for at least two generations and 73.3% are willing to pass the farm on to their children, proportions that are significantly higher than other entrepreneurial farms. Study results also show, however, that while many agritourism farms practice integrated pest management, they need to be more engaged in other environmentally friendly and conservation practices.     

Connecting Visitors to People and Place: Visitors’ Perceptions of Authenticity at Canyon de Chelly National Monument,Arizona

This study examines the effect of visitors’ characteristics, motivations and sense of place attachment on perceptions of authenticity at a cultural heritage site. Data were collected in summer and fall 2006 through an on-site survey questionnaire administered to a random sample of visitors to Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona ( n = 379; 76% response rate). The most important motives for visiting were ‘To enjoy nature’ and ‘To experience Navajo culture’. Additionally, visitors perceived a strong sense of place identity but a weaker sense of place dependence. Preservation of the archaeological resources was the most important contributor towards an authentic experience, followed by learning about customs and values of local people, meeting local people and visiting with an authorised Navajo guide. Attending interpretive programmes contributed the least. Results show that motivation to experience Navajo culture, the place identity dimension of place attachment, educational attainment, age and past experience at the monument had significant effects on the perception of an authentic experience at the monument. Place identity emerged as the strongest predictor of perceptions of authenticity, suggesting that a strong emotional bond is an important factor in visitors perceiving a site to be authentic. As visitor motivations for learning about the Navajo culture increased, so did perceptions of authenticity. Higher age also led to increased feelings of authenticity. As education levels and prior experience increased, perceptions of authenticity decreased.     

Tourism on organic farms in South Korea: a new form of ecotourism≟

This exploratory research examines the potential of organic farms in South Korea to enable a distinct form of environmentally sustainable tourism. Case studies involving in-depth interviews with three organic farms and content analysis of the websites of 38 organic farms offering tourism-related activities were conducted. An analytical framework using key ecotourism principles was developed to guide an evaluation of activities and practices on the farms. Organic farmers in the study were concerned about ecological conditions on their land, possessed close ties to that land, and employed related knowledge to help preserve natural habitat and minimize adverse environmental impacts. Social–cultural gains were evident, for both visitors and local inhabitants. It is argued that this type of tourism on organic farms may be a potentially new form of ecotourism (eco-organic farm tourism). The study suggests that ecotourism principles may be usefully applied as a guiding sustainability paradigm for small scale, organic farms engaging in tourism. This new tourism type can be employed as a strategy for facilitating sustainable agriculture, local development, social–cultural and environmental conservation, wellbeing, and learning. Further research needs to be carried out both in Korea and elsewhere to develop this eco-organic farm tourism concept.     

Heritage Tourism,Heritage Landscapes and Wilderness Preservation: The Case of National Park Thy

Tourism involving national parks manifests itself explicitly or implicitly as heritage tourism because national parks represent important symbols of the national landscape. This paper traces the journey of the proposed National Park Thy in northwestern Denmark from ordinary landscape to symbolic landscape, to candidacy for national park status and focus for heritage tourism. It is argued that the processes at work in Denmark are similar to those underpinning the creation of national parks elsewhere.     

A Closer Examination of the Impact of Zoo Visits on Visitor Behaviour

Zoos suggest that they can play a role in fostering conservation behaviour, but there is only limited research support for such claims. This article examines why there might be a difference between the stated potential for zoos to influence visitor behaviour and existing research findings. The present study utilises a research design, methods and instruments that provide more sensitive measures of conservation behaviour outcomes. In particular, a distinction is made between behaviours that were already known to visitors and new/unknown behaviours. Two behaviours communicated during a bird presentation at an Australian zoo (recycling and removing road kill from the road) were chosen to test. Results include that, 81% of the respondents recalled hearing the conservation actions during the presentation and 54% stated an intention to increase their commitment or start an action. In 38 follow-up telephone interviews six months after their visit, 26 stated that they had started or increased their commitment to an action. However, only three had started a new action and these were actions previously known to them. The results frame a discussion on actions that zoos may wish to target if they wish to communicate more successfully.     

A comparison of local and non-local visitor information-seeking behavior by visitors to civil war-related US National Park Service sites

Although previous research has documented differences between local and non-local visitors, the differences in the information sources referenced when planning trips have not been assessed in published studies. Differences in the sources used by local and non-local visitors to National Park Service Civil War conflict sites were examined, as were differences in ages and visitation characteristics. Although the vast majority of respondents had gathered information about the sites prior to visiting, differences existed in the type of sources used in general, sources used by locals as opposed to non-locals and sources used by visitors of different ages. Locals were more likely to be younger and to use past experience and the advice of acquaintances, whereas non-locals were more likely to be older and use impersonal sources. The results from this study can be used to target certain geographic or demographic populations with site information.     

Representing the landscape of Yushan National Park

Our study examined the representations of Yushan National Park from the perspectives of two tourism stakeholders, including an indigenous local community and the national park service. Social representations theory was applied to explore competing claims for a legitimate version of the park by each group. Additionally, the concept of territoriality was adopted to examine territorial expressions associated with the park and places therein. Sixteen community and twelve park service informants were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling. Both groups were found to converge in certain representations they ascribed to Yushan. More frequently, they were discordant in what consisted of its ideal image. Territorial strategies were employed by some informants to defend their ideal representation. Implications for collaborative partnerships are discussed.