“The enchantment of property”: Arthur Young,enclosure, and the cottage economy in England, 1770–1840

English agricultural practice changed dramatically in the late 18th and early 19th centuries as enclosure, the dominance of commercial short‐term leases for tenant farmers, and the proletarianization of the agricultural labour force completed what has been called an agricultural revolution. A less often noted aspect of this change was what was called “a war on cottages” and cottage gardens. The Board of Agriculture and Arthur Young were important cheerleaders for this process. Yet many of the most prominent members of the Board of Agriculture made impassioned appeals for the provision of land for English cottagers as a way to reduce poverty and stressed that cottagers produced remarkable returns from their small farms. Arthur Young became the most vocal proponent of land for cottagers. This article suggests that their appeals for land for cottagers were limited by both farmers' desire for easily controlled labour and misplaced concerns about the supposed inevitability of the poverty inherent in very small farms.     

A Marketing Approach to Commodity Futures Exchanges: A Case Study of the Dutch Hog Industry

This paper proposes a marketing strategic approach to commodity futures exchanges to optimise the (hedging) services offered. First, the environment of commodity futures exchanges is examined. Second, the threats and opportunities of commodity futures exchanges are analysed. Our analysis demonstrates that market orientation is an important element in the market strategies of commodity futures exchanges. Our market strategic framework is applied to the Dutch hog futures market. It is concluded that market penetration is an appropriate strategy. Consequently, to identify the variables that distinguish between farmers who initiate futures positions and farmers who do not, we conducted a discriminant analysis on data gathered from 418 Dutch hog farmers. The discriminant analysis shows that latent variables, such as farmers' perceived performance, farmers' reference price and farmers' market orientation, are important discriminating variables. Furthermore, farmers' cash market behaviour (in terms of the frequency of selling in the spot market) is an important discriminating variable as well. The usefulness of these results as input for a penetration policy is demonstrated.     

互联网嵌入对农户化学农药减量使用的影响——基于PSM模型的计量分析

[目的]在数字农业和绿色农业的双重背景下,探讨互联网嵌入对农户化学农药减量使用的影响,有助于实现农业数字化和绿色化发展。[方法]文章基于四川省712份微观农户调研数据,采用倾向得分匹配法实证检验了互联网嵌入是否会减少农户化学农药使用,并分析了其影响效应在不同农户群体中的异质性。[结果]互联网嵌入对农户减少化学农药使用具有显著的正向影响,其平均处理效应为0.114;互联网嵌入能有效促进小农户、专业种植大户和家庭农场减少化学农药使用,平均处理效应分别介于0.104～0.113、0.078～0.103和0.116～0.128;互联网嵌入对家庭农场减少化学农药使用的促进作用略大于小农户和专业种植大户,而相比于专业种植大户,互联网嵌入对小农户化学农药减量使用的促进作用更强。[结论]应推进农村新基建发展,提升农村互联网普及率,采取差异化的措施,鼓励家庭农场发展,引导家庭农场将互联网技术应用于农业生产,并加强互联网技术宣传与培训,提升小农户和专业种植大户嵌入互联网的能力,以促进农户减少化学农药使用。     

Poor but allocatively efficient—evidence from the Eastern Amazon

This research empirically investigates the well‐known “poor‐but‐efficient” hypothesis formulated by Schultz (1964) assuming that small‐scale farmers in developing countries are reasonably efficient in allocating their scarce resources by responding positively to price incentives. Deviating from Schultz it is assumed here that scale effects explain a considerable proportion of small‐scale farmers' relative efficiency. The theoretical underpinnings of the scale efficiency concept are briefly reviewed before a normalized generalized Leontief (GL) profit function is modeled by using its output supply and input demand system to capture the joint production of cassava flour and maize by a sample of small‐scale farmers in the Bragantina region of the Eastern Amazon, Brazil. The discussion of theoretical consistency and functional flexibility is considered by imposing convexity on the GL profit framework. The empirical results confirm our revised hypothesis that small farmers in traditional development settings are “poor‐but‐allocatively efficient” by clearly suggesting considerable inefficiency with respect to the scale of operations.     

Technical and scale efficiency of crop and livestock farms in Poland: does specialization matter?

The technical and scale efficiency of Polish farms is analyzed using data envelopment analysis. Efficiency differences are measured according to farm specialization, in crop or livestock, at two points in time during transition, 1996 and 2000. The efficiency results are reviewed in light of confidence intervals provided by bootstrapping. Livestock farms are found to be, on average, more technically and scale efficient than crop farms. Scale efficiency is high for both specializations. Technical inefficiency appears mostly to be due to “pure technical” rather than “scale” inefficiency, and thus attributable to inefficient management practices. The evidence suggests that the low‐educational attainment of people engaged in agriculture is one important reason for these inefficient practices. In 2000, 64% of livestock farms and 86% of crop farms were operating under increasing returns to scale. Improvements in the land lease legislation and changes to the policy support to farmers' pensions could stimulate the land market and remove the incentives to keep a fragmented operational structure.     

Community‐supported agriculture in the United States: Social,ecological, and economic benefits to farming

In the United States, there is a tremendous amount of interest in community‐supported agriculture (CSA) among farmers, consumers, activists, and policymakers. Despite the attention garnered by CSA and the resurgence of local agriculture, relatively few studies have examined the livelihood opportunities for farmers within local agriculture. This paper evaluates the livelihoods of CSA farmers from the farmers' perspective in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts. Results indicate that although CSA farmers earn more farm income than other farms across the United States on average, they still earn far below the median national income and generally fail to earn a living wage. Despite these findings, CSA farmers stressed the importance of the broader social, ecological, and economic benefits to farming. Although these non‐market benefits are a significant source of well‐being from the CSA farmers' perspective, CSA has largely failed to provide adequate livelihoods for farmers to date.     

To Cheat or Not To Cheat: Moral Hazard and Agri‐environmental Policy

This Address examines the moral hazard problem in agri‐environmental policy. It begins with a theoretical analysis of moral hazard in this context, including the identification of eight potential causes of cheating behaviour among farmers. But is cheating behaviour among farmers actually a problem for agri‐environmental policy? And if it is, which are the statistically significant causes of concern? The answer seems to be: “we don't know” as there are currently no empirical analyses of the moral hazard problem and its causes in agri‐environmental policy. On this basis I analyse a set of policy solutions – to a problem for which we have no evidence of its causes or extent!     

Quantifying the impact of farmers' social networks on the effectiveness of climate change mitigation policies in agriculture

To reduce agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, farmers need to change current farming practices. However, farmers' climate change mitigation behaviour and particularly the role of social and individual characteristics remains poorly understood. Using an agent-based modelling approach, we investigate how knowledge exchange within farmers' social networks affects the adoption of mitigation measures and the effectiveness of a payment per ton of GHG emissions abated. Our simulations are based on census, survey and interview data for 49 Swiss dairy and cattle farms to simulate the effect of social networks on overall GHG reduction and marginal abatement costs. We find that considering social networks increases overall reduction of GHG emissions by 45% at a given payment of 120 Swiss Francs (CHF) per ton of reduced GHG emissions. The per ton payment would have to increase by 380 CHF (i.e., 500 CHF/tCO₂eq) to reach the same overall GHG reduction level without any social network effects. Moreover, marginal abatement costs for emissions are lower when farmers exchange relevant knowledge through social networks. The effectiveness of policy incentives aiming at agricultural climate change mitigation can hence be improved by simultaneously supporting knowledge exchange and opportunities of social learning in farming communities.     

Determinants of the Willingness of Belgian Farmers to Participate in Agri‐environmental Measures

This paper explores the willingness of Belgian farmers to participate in two voluntary agri‐environmental policies. Farmers' contingent behaviour is analysed on the basis of survey data. Derivations based on a conceptual micro‐economic model indicate that decision subject and decision maker characteristics are important for farmers' participation. The model is empirically tested through the specification and estimation of a probit model. Consistency is found between the theoretical framework and the empirical results indicating that both the expected effect on farm production and the farmers' environmental attitude, which is more positive among younger and better educated farmers, are significant determinants of the acceptance rate of agri‐environmental policies. Other variables which influence participation decisions are farm size and previous experience of farmers themselves or of neighbouring farmers with agri‐environmental measures.     

农村生活污水治理受益农户付费行为分析基于东江源水源地的农户调查

[目的]分析水源地农村生活污水治理中的农户参与及付费行为。[方法]文章运用单边界加支付卡式的改进条件价值评估法（CVM）,以东江源水源地500户农户调查微观数据为基础,采用Heckman两阶段模型分析农户付费行为差异及关键因素。[结果]（1）不同生活污水治理模式下样本农户同意进入付费情景的概率不同,支付意愿也不同,但差距不大;接入城（集）镇处理管网的农户平均支付意愿为8.55元/（月·户）,接入村落集中污水处理设施的农户平均支付意愿为4.42元/（月·户）,采用农户分散处理模式的农户平均支付意愿为5.63元/（月·户）。（2）村集体的参与、农户对水环境的感知变量均对农户付费行为有显著影响。其中,在第一阶段中区县变量、河流水质变化的感知、河流水质变化与污水处理关系认知、是否是集中污水处理设施覆盖村、文化程度、是否是村干部变量通过了显著检验,是影响受益农户是否同意付费的关键因素;在第二阶段中区县变量、本村生活污水处理治理成效满意度、收入通过了显著性检验,是影响受益农户支付水平的关键因素。[结论]应建立县级可持续的农村生活污水处理设施管护机制,明确污水处理设施管护责任主体,划分各主体职责,可...     

Future Changes in British Agriculture: Projecting Divergent Farm Household Behaviour

The recent decline in farm incomes has focused attention on farmers' uneven propensity to adjust and adapt. Changes in farm policies are slowly redirecting the support paid to farmers in Europe, and further reforms are envisaged. This paper argues that farmers in Britain are likely to pursue highly diverse strategies in this changed context, according to their individual circumstances, values and attitudes. These groups (essentially ideal types) are derived both from in‐depth qualitative interviews and from a cluster analysis of variables relating to the farm and to the farm household's socialisation and attitudes. The paper seeks to draw out the implications of divergent farm household behaviour for future structural change, and for agricultural and rural policy. Opportunities are identified for the UK government to implement the EU Rural Development Regulation in ways that would suit the varied circumstances of British farmers in the postproductivist transition.     

ROLES OF WOMEN ON FARMS: A PILOT STUDY

Official statistics do not reveal the nature of the contribution which farmers' wives make to the farm labour force. On the basis of a pilot study, three roles for women on farms were identified. Main distinguishing features were division of labour between husband and wife, frequency of manual work, responsibility for farm enterprises, participation in formal organisations and approach to housework. Home-centred farm housewives only work on the farm occasionally, working farmwives assist their husbands regularly while women farmers threaten male status by doing “man's” work. Reasons for women playing one role rather than another are discussed. Trends in agriculture suggest that the farmer's wife's contribution to the farm business will become still more significant in future. “The concept of ‘the farmer and his wife’ so often used by agricultural economics is far from having universal validity” (Ashby, 1953: 97).     

土地流转对农民创业的影响研究基于社会资本的调节作用分析

目的 土地细碎化与传统分散式经营一定程度阻碍了农业适度规模经营与农民创业,探索土地流转对农民创业的影响,对加速农业现代化发展、实现农民增收具有重要意义。方法 文章阐释土地流转影响农民创业的机理,并依据陕西、宁夏、山东3省（区）1 947份农户调研数据,运用Probit模型实证检验土地流转对农民创业的影响,同时进一步测度社会资本是否发挥调节作用。结果 （1）转入土地正向促进农民创业基本决策,而转出土地负向抑制农民创业基本决策,显著性水平分别为1%和5%。（2）进一步划分创业类型后显示,转入土地能显著促进农民开展涉农创业,而转出土地能促进农民开展非农创业。（3）社会资本的调节作用显著,具体表现为,整合型社会资本在转入土地影响涉农创业中发挥调节作用,而跨越型社会资本在转出土地影响非农创业中发挥调节作用。结论 因此,建议持续推进土地流转政策的深化改革,确保从土地流转到农民创业的顺利衔接;加强农民创业培训体系建设,考核培训后的效益效果,通过提升培训质量助推农民创业;鼓励农民增强社交意识,灵活运用社会网络获取资源,并通过积极社交打通阶级壁垒、促进信息流动,加速创业的开展。     

Pesticide‐handling practices: the case of coffee growers in Papua New Guinea

Pesticide mismanagement potentially has high risks for farmers, households living in the community and the environment. In Papua New Guinea where farming is the primary occupation, there is evidence of dangerous herbicide application methods being used by coffee growers. Using original survey data for coffee smallholders from four provinces, we assess the factors driving farmers' use of personal protective equipment when preparing and applying herbicides, and farmers' disposal of agro‐chemical containers. We control for households' demographic variables and measure the impact of farmers' training in pest and disease management. We use the special regressor method to estimate binary choice models featuring an endogenous binary regressor (training). Our results show that human capital (education) and training are important drivers of farmers' pesticide‐handling practices, with marginal effects estimated at 10 and 22 per cent, respectively.     

Environmental impacts of technological change in Bangladesh agriculture: farmers' perceptions, determinants, and effects on resource allocation decisions

This article measures the impact of modern technology adoption in raising farmers' environmental awareness and the impact of farmers' environmental awareness on resource use by utilizing survey data from 21 villages in three agro‐ecological regions of Bangladesh. The econometric analysis is based on the application of the Tobit model explaining farmers' environmental awareness in the first stage and a profit function examining environmental awareness and resource use relationships in the second stage. Results reveal that the “level” and “duration” of involvement with modern technology raises farmers' environmental awareness, and that farmers' environmental awareness reduces resource use including chemicals. Farmers, who are aware of the adverse environmental impacts of modern agricultural technology, use lower amounts of all inputs in order to avoid further environmental damage. Therefore, efforts to raise farmers' environmental awareness are expected to enhance intangible benefits accruing from a relatively less chemical‐intensive environment.     

Are preserved farms actively engaged in agriculture and conservation?

This study addresses the question of whether farms enrolled in land preservation programs are actively engaged in agricultural or conservation activities. Data are drawn from an original survey administered to preserved farm owners in the states of New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware in 2011. “Actively engaged” is defined as investment in conservation projects, buildings, equipment, or irrigation since the land was preserved. Affirmative answers to the survey's investment questions range from a low of 19% for irrigation to a high of 69% for equipment. Special attention was paid to differences between lifestyle farmers and small and large commercial farmers, which are classified using the USDA typology developed in 2000. Regression analysis estimates differences in investment behavior across these groups as well as farm tenure categories, controlling for farm size, program/state location, and demographic variables. Only owners who employ tenants or managers exclusively on their land were found to invest significantly less than the largest professional farmers, and they did so across all four types of investment.This study's findings support preservation goals articulated by legislators and program administrators, because (1) agricultural and land stewardship investments appear to be widespread on preserved farms, partly due to administrators’ preference for larger parcels, (2) there is no evidence that “hobby farmers” are disproportionately attracted to farmland preservation programs – in fact the opposite seems to be true – while those that exist in our sample behave similarly to the largest commercial farmers, (3) although tenant farming is associated in the sample with lower rates of investment, it is less common on preserved farms than on all farms in the three study states. The matter of land tenure, highlighted in this as in other studies, has not yet become a primary focus of either farm-behavioral research or state agricultural policy.     

农户环境友好型农业技术选择行为及异质性基于离散选择实验的研究

目的 中国是世界上最大的化肥和农药使用国,农业绿色发展面临严峻挑战,这与缺少国家层面和农田管理层面为农户专门设计的环境友好型技术及配套激励政策不无关系。方法 文章利用离散选择实验（Discrete choice experiment,DCE）,以环境友好型农业技术（Agri-environmental technologies,AETs）及配套政策为基础设计农业环境政策方案（Agri-environmental schemes,AES）。用混合Logit模型（Mixed Logit model,MXL）来揭示农户在假想的AES情景下对AETs的选择行为及影响因素,证实农户偏好异质性的存在。后续条件Logit模型（Conditional Logit model,CLM）引入交互变量进一步揭示农户的偏好异质性来源。结果 研究表明补偿额度及农户社会经济变量是影响其参与AES的主要因素,且相对于退出保持现有耕种方式不变农户更偏好于实施AES。该研究还证实了农户对AETs选择偏好存在异质性,因此灵活的政策设计是AES顺利实施的重要保障。结论 鉴于对农户选择偏好及异质性的充分了解,政策制定者可以科学地制定和微调农业环境政策,设计AES以最大限度地减少各类农户反对意见,吸引绝大多数农户采纳AETs实践,提高项目参与率。     

农户响应耕地休耕政策的影响因素分析以乌鲁木齐县为例

[目的]基于乌鲁木齐县294位农户调研数据,分析其响应耕地休耕的影响因素,针对性提出对策建议,以期为耕地休耕制度的顺利推进提供依据。[方法]文章基于调研数据的整理,从农户个体特征、农户家庭特征、耕地基本情况和农户对休耕政策的认知4个方面,利用二分类Logistic模型,对乌鲁木齐县农户响应耕地休耕政策的影响因素进行深入分析。[结果](1)研究区内受访农户积极响应休耕的人数占总数的63.61%,农户休耕积极响应程度有待提高。(2)耕地自然生产条件是影响耕地休耕的重要原因,耕地的资源禀赋直接影响农户参与休耕响应的程度。(3)补偿标准是否合理对耕地休耕政策响应程度影响显著,合理地制定休耕补偿标准,农户休耕响应热情将大幅度增加。[结论]应从耕地休耕补偿机制的建立,补偿模式的选择等方面来制定合理的休耕补偿标准,同时增强农户对耕地休耕政策的认知、提高休耕地管护重要性的认识等方面来提高农户休耕的响应程度。     

Formal and informal contract farming in Mozambique: Socially embedded relations of agricultural intensification

This paper explores the role of contract farming arrangements in agricultural intensification in sub-Saharan Africa, combining secondary literature and original case material from Mozambique. The paper extends the scope of “contract farming” beyond the formal contracts between large companies and small-scale producers to include less formal credit agreements between farmers and traders. It argues that such informal contract arrangements are evidence of farmers' agency in “real markets.” In the studied cases, farmers use contract farming opportunities to intensify agricultural production by investing in irrigation and inputs. While informal contracts typically concern locally consumed crops, thus with more possibilities for side selling than formal contracts for export crops with company-controlled markets, informal contract compliance reflects closely knit social ties between the contracting parties. In both formal and informal contracts, purchasers tend to seek out producers who are already irrigating, thus obtaining gains from farmers' earlier investments. This also implies contract farming as a mechanism for accelerating social differentiation arising from unequal access to irrigation. The paper argues that the significance of informal contracts in the studied cases raises the possibility that informal contract farming by local traders plays a more important role in agrarian transformation in Africa than formal contract farming by large companies.     

Moral Hazard and Risk Management in Agri‐environmental Policy

This paper develops the key finding of Ozanne, Hogan and Colman (2001) that risk aversion among farmers ameliorates the moral hazard problem in relation to agrienvironmental policy compliance. It is shown that risk averse farmers who face uncertainty in their production income are more likely to comply with such a policy as a means of risk management. In addition, it is shown that a principal who has control over both the level of monitoring and the size of penalty, if detected, can reduce non‐compliance by adjustments to these instruments which increase the variance of farmers' income but leave the expected penalty unchanged. It is concluded that risk management by both principals and agents has the potential to diminish the moral hazard problem, especially given proposed developments in agri‐environmental policy in the European Union.