AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN WEST GERMANY

Much of the area which at present constitutes the German Federal Republic was, in the past, agriculturally backward. Since 1949, West German agriculture has made considerable technical progress, but still suffers from severe structural problems. These problems of small farm size and fragmentation have their origin in the 18th century, when farmers obtained control of the land without the enclosure movement experienced in Britain, and no serious programme of structural reform was undertaken before 1939. In recent years, West German agriculture has increased production very greatly and at the same time reduced its labour force at an unprecedented rate. Moreover, a substantial programme of structural reform was initiated in the 1950's. As a result, farmers' incomes have risen at roughly the same rate as other incomes. In the last few years, West German agriculture has come under increasing pressure as a result of economic developments and the competition of other Common Market countries. It is clear that a more radical programme of structural reform is needed.     

QUANTITATIVE POLICY MODELLING IN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

The paper reconsiders the topic of McClements' 1973 article on model-building but does so in the particular context of policy modelling. Some principles are discussed, along with the relationship of the real world to its representation in a model built for a specific purpose. The assumptions and implications of the econometric and time-series approaches to policy modelling are contrasted, and lessons drawn for model specification and selection. The management, use and dissemination of policy models are also discussed. It is hoped that the experience of the last ten or fifteen years will lead to model-building in agricultural economics being better organised and more rewarding in future.     

ISSUES OF AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Growth in agricultural productivity and the stimulus of price supports have led to overproduction in Western Europe: in particular, the European Community has become a smaller importer and even a major exporter of several products. But as prices in the EC are usually above world levels, this requires expensive subsidisation and leads to trade conflicts. Adjustments now forced on the CAP mean a greater cost-price squeeze, besides imposing quotas on the dairy sector. Policy aims relating to farm incomes and to market balance have thus become very difficult to reconcile. Future policy will also have to take more account of the impact of farming on the environment and of the role of agricultural activity in rural communities. Are there policy instruments, such as direct aids, which can help to achieve such diverse goals? What are the implications of changing circumstances for farming systems, and in particular can low-input systems offer an alternative to the ‘productivist’ farming model?     

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN UNITED STATES AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD POLICY

The paper reviews the events leading up to the 1985 Food Security Act. Attention is also drawn to four other legislative initiatives having a direct bearing on the farm sector. These are: deficit reduction; tax reform; trade protectionism; and agricultural credit. The case against mandatory supply controls is reviewed and reasons are given for believing the 1985 bill will put U.S. agriculture back on the road to prosperity.     

AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN CHINA—A VISITOR'S IMPRESSION

Following a study tour of China a brief account is presented of recent changes in agricultural policy with some short comments on living conditions. The account concentrates on the prominence now given to agriculture within the planning process and the recent raising of its status relative to other sectors. This is associated with the change to the household responsibility system allied to upward adjustment in agricultural producer prices and some adjustment in input costs.     

ECONOMIC REDIRECTIONS IN RECENT U.S. AGRICULTURAL POLICY

Decisions of governments around the world concerning their agriculturul sectors have taken on increasingly an international dimension. The United Kingdom with its unique economic character has shared historically a mutual concern with major agricultural countries about their policies. This study analyses recent developments in U.S. agricultural price and income policy and programmes. Though some version of these policies has prevailed in the U.S. for almost forty years, distinct redirections have appeared in the current decade following a major policy crisis in the late 1950's. The new voluntary land retirement and compensatory payment approach is characterised, its economic rationale examined, and some of its probable economic consequences are measured. There has been a shift away from a high price support and from attempts at a compulsory production control programme. Many of the problems have been eliminated or mitigated, but both remaining and newly created difficulties still plague the policy scene.     

CONSTITUTIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONSTRAINTS IN AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL POLICY*

When men are committed to technology they are also committed to continual change in institutions and customs [8, p. 72]. Nowhere does the fervor for this arcadian age reach such a crescendo as it does with the odes that are dedicated to the whooping crane of the American economic scene, the ‘family farm’ [6, p. 171].     

FARM CREDIT POLICY IN THE EARLY STAGES OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT*

This paper discusses the farm credit policies pursued by governments in low-income countries. It is argued that, in the early stages of development, peasant attitudes to debt are such that cheap credit is unlikely to be a useful growth stimulus. It is shown that the effectiveness of credit depends on the ability and willingness of the peasants to devote such additional funds to productive uses. The poor performance of many government rural credit programmes in low-income countries is discussed and criteria for a successful programme are presented.     

UK GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGES IN AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT UNDER THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY

The change in government expenditure which accompanies change in agricultural land use and output is an important parameter in current policy decisions. This change is estimated in this paper using a simple accounting model which recognises the diversity of support schemes in operation and the interaction between them. Use of the model is illustrated by estimating the effects of changes in beef, sheepmeat and cereals output under alternative assumptions about market conditions, yield levels and land classes affected. The paper concludes by discussing other ways in which the model might be used.     

荷兰农业绿色转型经验与政策启示

[目的]与我国的农业资源禀赋条件相似,荷兰人多地少,农业资源贫乏,却是世界农业强国,其20世纪80年代开始的农业转型之路对促进我国当前农业绿色发展具有重要借鉴意义。[方法]结合实地调研与文献研究,文章梳理了荷兰40年来在农业环境治理方面的具体政策设计和实施效果,并分析了其主要经验做法及对我国发展的启示。[结果]从畜禽养殖数量控制到化学投入品控制、再到农业资源全管理,荷兰始终坚持以种养结合的可持续发展模式应对农业资源环境挑战,不断强化循环利用技术推广应用,逐步建立了严格的农业资源环境监管体系和政府支持体系,在农业污染得到有效治理的同时,依然很好地保持了国际市场竞争力。[结论]荷兰曾经面对的养殖业污染、化学品过度投入等问题也是我国当前农业环境的突出问题,其当时采取的转型思路与我们目前的绿色发展理念高度一致,借鉴荷兰经验,加快推进我国农业绿色发展,亟需创新循环农业发展模式,加强绿色发展技术支撑,建立并完善农业绿色发展制度体系,协同推进农业资源环境保护和农业竞争力提升。