Research on asian cultures and management: Some epistemological issues

This paper highlights the major issues raised in the conference Culture and Management Styles in Southeast Asian countries and discusses the espistomological and methodological problems of doing comparative management research in general as well as in the region.The paper identifies the themes which emerged from the conference discussions as (1) the fundamental rationale for research and the apparent weakness in making it explicit, (2) the questions of epistomology as regards causation, and the (3) more mundane issues faced in conforming to standard research paradigms. These issues are discussed under the following headings: What is to be included, subjects' espoused theory or theory in use, idiographic versus nomothetic approaches, more universal variables, problems of defining culture. The implications and significance of different approaches and disciplines concerning these issues are considered, and guidelines for future research in the area are suggested.Professor Gordon S. Redding is with the Department of Management Studies, University of Hong Kong.     

History and managerial culture in Singapore: “Pragmatism”, “openness” and “paternalism”

This paper examines the historical evolution of culture and management in Singapore, the existence of cultural fluidity in the society and the openness of Singapore to foreign management in relation to the changes in the environment resulting from modernization and development. Management in Singapore has always been multinational in origin. It has also been influenced considerably by the Chinese family system. It is in a state of flux; new and foreign practices are continually assimilated and adapted. Inspite of the wide variations in management practices, Singapore management remained characteristically pragmatic and open as well as paternalistic.Dr. Chong Li Choy is Senior Lecturer in the School of Management, National University of Singapore.     

The conceptual understanding of scientific principles in Home Economics

This paper stresses the importance of scientific understanding as part of Home Economics courses and describes how personal misconceptions can interfere with this understanding. It examines the misconceptions held by third level undergraduate students of a basic scientific principle used in the cooking of food, that of boiling, and compares these misconceptions with those of second level pupils commencing their formal education in science. Little difference is reported between the two groups in terms of the misconceptions held. The effectiveness of a teaching methodology based on a constructivist view of knowledge, that of cognitive conflict, in changing misconceptions is reported.     

Qualified audit reports and costly contracting

This paper investigates the financial characteristics of the population of listed Singaporean companies receiving first-time qualified audit reports. It develops and tests hypotheses which take into account the costly contracting implications of a qualification for both the auditor and client. A matched pair design is used as a control. Results show that firms receiving qualified reports are significantly less profitable and liquid and have significantly more debt than the control in the year of qualification. Profitability and liquidity are shown to have declined in the four-year period up to the qualification, while debt levels have increased. These results may partially explain why the general (overseas) no-effect result from share market announcement date studies exists; the qualification per se is a dated signal of financial deterioration that has existed for at least the previous four years. Qualification is also significantly associated with auditor type and ownership of the firm, and is also dependent upon whether or not the firm has revalued its assets or changed accounting methods. It is more likely that a qualified report will be issued by a non Big 8 auditor in Singapore to a firm which has a higher proportion of the equity owned by the management. Qualified firms are more likely to have revalued assets and changed accounting methods to increase income than the control group. The strength of the results is also shown to depend on the nature of the qualification. Companies receiving severe qualifications (ie going concern, not true and fair, and unable to form an opinion) have far more significant differences than their pairs compared with those firms receiving moderate or other qualifications.The authors are Senior Lecturer, School of Accountancy and Business, Nanyang Technological University and Professor, Department of Accounting, University of Sydney, respectively. All correspondence should be addressed to Yoke-Kai Chan, School of Accountancy and Business, Nayang Technological University, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798.This paper has benefited from the comments of an anonymous referee, participants at the Australasian Banking and Finance Conference, the 15th Annual Congress of the European Accounting Association, and at workshops at the Australian Graduate School of Management, the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, the Nanyang Technological University and the University of Southern Queensland, and in particular those of Greg Whittred, Steve Taylor, Roger Simnett, Kim Sawyer and Don Stokes. Financial support from the National University of Singapore is gratefully acknowledge. The usual caveats apply.     

The motivation and need satisfaction of Papua New Guinea managers

Maslow theorised that people share a concern for five levels of needs. These are arranged in a hierarchy in which higher level needs become more dominant as lower level ones are satisfied. In order of prepotency the needs are: security, social, esteem, autonomy and self actualisation. Haire et al (1966) and Clark and McCabe (1971) found a different but consistent ranking of need importance and satisfaction from that proposed by Maslow. They surmised that despite cultural differences and different stages of economic development, managers from different countries attached similar importance to the five need categories.The applicability of the Haire et al conclusion was tested by comparing the feelings Australian and Papua New Guinea (PNG) managers attached to the five need categories. Australia and PNG are neighbours. Australia is a developed country where individualism is a feature of life. PNG, however, is a developing country where wantokism permeates almost every facet of people interaction. It was found that the PNG results on need importance and satisfaction was dissimilar to that of Australia. The PNG results showed a remarkable similarity with those of the developing countries. Cultural differences and differing stages of economic development, it appears, affect the degree of importance attached to the five need categories and these factors should be taken into account when designing organisation structures and setting up reward systems.     

China's Labour-Management System Reforms: Breaking the ‘Three Old Irons’ (1978–1999)

This article systematically examines the fundamental changes that have taken place in China's labour-management system since China embarked on its economic reforms in 1978. The system was, from the 1950s onwards, characterized by what were called the three old irons, i.e. life-time employment (the iron rice bowl), centrally administered wages (the iron wage), and state-controlled appointment and promotion of managerial staff (the iron chair). This study reviews the degree to which the reform process is breaking these three old irons and is arguably replacing them with a hybrid human resource management model, albeit with Chinese characteristics, that reflects the influence of foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) that have invested in China.     

Literacy,technology and ‘technological literacy’

The shortcomings of the technological literacy metaphor are reviewed. The lack of an agreed meaning for this concept reflects a widespread perplexity about how the study of technology should be incorporated into general education. The paper considers how the study of literature and history might contribute to an understanding of technology and posits a framework which permits the study of the made world to be incorporated within a humanistic educational scheme. It is suggested that the historical study of technologies of literacy could play a significant role in curricular integration.Based on a Plenary Address to the second Domains of Literacy Conference:Literacies for a Productive Future Institute of Education London 1/9/94Michael Barnett has been, since 1992, Professor of Technology and Education at the Institute of Education in London University. Prior to that he was Reader in Physics at Imperial College London. His main scholarly activities are concerned with the history, philosophy and sociology of technology and their bearing on educational practice. He has established an MA programme in Technology and Education which reflects these concerns.     

The needs of Japanese industry and engineering education

Japan experienced a miraculous reconstruction after the second world war partly due to the far-sighted support of the victors, especially the United States, and China, who did not divide the country or demand reparations, and partly due to the unique inherent qualities of the Japanese people.The Japanese race has developed its national identity from a combination of the country's location, climate and the circumstances of its some 1000 year history. As a result the people of Japan are truly a single race, for the most part uniform in experience, culture and language with a strong domestic orientation. From an educational viewpoint, the Japanese are historically good learners. However, they are traditionally bad when it comes to generating new ideas by applying theory for creative purposes.A simple process of (1) follow, (2) catch up and (3) equal or surpass describes the development of the high-tech industry in Japan. This process has made the most of the Japanese people's ability to absorb information as well as their single-minded determination to achieve goals and their propensity for concentrated effort. As the automobile and semi-conductor industries illustrate, the Japanese have unequalled expertise when it comes to adopting technology from advanced industrial nations overseas, perfecting it and making it their own.The challenge for the Japanese people, now that the catch-up process is all but completed, is to continue their progress by generating their own innovative ideas. In addition, the Japanese must develop a more global orientation and consider the needs of foreign markets in new product development. This evolution must take place in an atmosphere of international sharing, co-operation and partnership.In terms of education, the traditional good learner with a domestic orientation must be taught how to be a good original thinker with an international viewpoint.The engineering system in Japan has been placed against this background and is examined from both an historic and a futuristic perspective.     

Location and Implementation Issues in Support Function FDI: The Globalisation of Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd.

This research looks at foreign direct investment in support functions such as R&D and employee training facilities, through a study of the globalisation of Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd. Linkages among investments are highlighted. Centripetal forces are identified which pull later-stage FDI to the sites of initial investments, resulting in the creation of integrated, self-contained value chains overseas. Specific examples of R&D and employee training FDI suggest that while the purpose of support function FDI is to gain cost or differentiation benefits, successful implementation requires effective knowledge creation and transfer capabilities.     

Social categorisation in Philippine organisations: Values toward collective identity and management through intergroup relations

The popularity of American-style management techniques in the Philippines implies an inevitable transition from the traditional values rooted in interdependent collectivism to the modern values of independent individualism. It is argued that an indigenous style of Filipino management is viable and imperative, which recognises the salience of collective identities in organisations. Based on a theory of social categorisation, a conceptual model of management through intergroup relations is presented. The main contention is that, in place of a dysfunctional conflict between Americanised management tactics and contemporary Filipino values, organisational effectiveness could ensue from a synchronic synergy between Filipino-style management tactics and the social categorisation effects of intragroup convergence and intergroup divergence.     

The NCAA Cartel and Competitive Balance in College Football

The NCAA regulates college football player recruiting, eligibility, and compensation. The economic theory of cartels suggests that one consequence may be reduced competitive balance. The enforced restrictions inhibit weak teams from improving, and protect strong teams from competition. A stratification is implied which should be evident over time as less churning in national rankings and conference standings, and fewer schools achieving national prominence. I test this general hypothesis by comparing various competitive balance measures for about 25 years before and after NCAA enforcement began in 1952. The hypothesis is supported by all measures at both the national and conference levels.     

Testing for Competitiveness of Markets for Long Distance Telephone Services: Competition Finally?

Telecommunications regulatory policy is driven by rhetoric and myth concerning the competitiveness of long-distance service. Relying on behavioral tests for competitiveness, this review brings up to date analytical work establishing the pattern of competition or the lack of competition since the 1984 AT & T divestiture. Through mid 1997, the three large long-distance carriers in setting their price-cost margins have managed to carry through on a previously established strategy of tacit collusion in both message toll services and WATS-type business services. The remarkable results have been that price-cost margins increased while sales concentration declined. This general pattern is not contradicted by the most recent offering of 15-cent per minute one price on new discount plans since that too implies an increase in carriers' price cost margins as concentration continued to decline.     

Paths to Common Ground? A Rejoinder to Dewey's Response

While subsequent discussion in this Review has failed to reconcile the merger policies proposed by Dewey and Keyes, it has suggested that they are not as far apart as they seemed at first reading. It now appears that both writers advocate a serious critical consideration of the efficiencies claims advanced by proponents of otherwise unacceptable mergers. Moreover, there may be a possibility that Dewey's special large-firm merger control could be defended on grounds which would not conflict with Keyes' proposal but would simply complement it.     

Transcending Paradox: The Chinese “Middle Way” Perspective

Western thought is noted for its strengths in categorization and analysis; Eastern, or Chinese thought, is noted for its integrative and encompassing nature. This article seeks to bridge the two. Specifically, it aims to enrich Western thinking and the existing body of paradox literature by proposing the idea of paradoxical integration, a concept derived from the Chinese middle way philosophy. Paradoxical integration, the notion that two opposites (such as self and other) may be interdependent in nature and together constitute a totality (integration), is introduced as one means of transcending paradox and the conventional Western conceptualization of exclusive opposites. It suggests how we can apply the concept of interdependent opposites in a both/and framework to foster reconciliation of the apparent polarities of such dichotomies as competition and cooperation. The article concludes with a discussion of the broad implications of the concept of paradoxical integration upon both academic research and business practice.An erratum to this article can be found at     

The Egalitarian Leader: A Comparison of Leadership in Australia and New Zealand

This article compares leadership in Australia and New Zealand based on data collected as a part of the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) 62-nation culture and leadership project. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to demonstrate that etic (universal) dimensions of Charismatic and Self-Protective leadership are evident in both cultures, but that the dimensions have emic (local) culturally determined manifestations. These emic manifestations were stronger in New Zealand than in Australia. Leadership effectiveness incorporated the negative emic dimension of Bureaucratic leadership (both countries), and the positive emic dimension of Egalitarian leadership in Australia and Team leadership in New Zealand. Both models of leadership nonetheless represent styles of leadership based on egalitarian principles.     

Cultural dimensions in management and planning

The nature of management skills is such that they are culturally specific: a management technique or philosophy that is appropriate in one national culture is not necessarily appropriate in another. The paper describes the scope of (work-related) cultural differences as they were revealed by research in more than 50 countries around the world and discusses how these differences affect the validity of management techniques and philosophies in various countries within the functioning and meaning of planning.The author is with the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation, the Netherlands. This paper is a shorter version of the first part of a report MAN DEV/28. Culture and Management Development, written on behalf of the UNDP/ILO Interregional Project Co-operation among Management Development Institutions and published by the International Labour Office, Management Development Branch, Training Department, Geneva 1983.     

Problem-solving processes in technology education: A pilot study

This paper reports the preliminary results of a pilot study investigating the nature of problem-solving activity in technology classrooms. The research focuses on the relationship and potential mismatch between teachers' and children's agendas, aims, perceptions and beliefs concerning design and technology activities. A case study of an 11-week project was undertaken with four pupils aged 13. In-depth classroom observation and interviews allowed us to investigate the problem solving used in designing and making a kite, and the pupils' application of the knowledge required. Our analysis charts the influence of the teacher's task structuring and interventions on the children's problem-solving behaviour. The results indicate that the design process is highly complex and not always communicated successfully by teachers. What children typically encounter in design and technology projects are different problems requiring different approaches according to the kind of task and the stage reached in its solution. The popular idea that problem solving in technology denotes a holistic design-and-make process is hence under challenge. Moreover, the assumed access and application of relevant bodies of knowledge from other contexts is highly problematic.     

Science,technology and engineering: Building lifelong bridges

In response to what is envisaged as a crisis in scientific and technological literacy, various organizations and governmental agencies have put forward recommendations for enriching students' science and technology experiences in formal and informal learning environments. This paper examines one such organization — the Professional Engineers Ontario — and their Innovators in the School initiative. Through this student outreach programme, engineers, scientists and technologists volunteer their time to visit elementary and secondary level students, encouraging them to pursue science, technology and engineering careers. In particular, this research identifies issues that the Innovators (interestingly, over half are women) consider to be important for promoting a positive image of science to young people. First, the paper considers what an image of science might potentially be. Second, it addresses the question of how Innovators and other educators (teachers, policy-makers, curriculum planning teams) might promote this positive image in the classroom and school.     

Temporal Dynamics of Crossvergence: Institutionalizing MNC Integration Strategies in Post-Crisis ASEAN

This study utilizes the temporal lens afforded by the unprecedented pace of the Asian financial crisis to re-conceptualize the convergence-divergence-crossvergence (CDC) framework. Grounded at the Western-headquartered ASEAN subsidiary, CDC is hypothesized as a dialectical progression comprising Western corporate culture (convergence) ASEAN societal culture (divergence) and ending with the institutionalization of these forces (crossvergence) as a transient re-equilibrium. Against a backdrop of increasing macro-level turbulence, the CDC dialectic is then fed through a dyadic cycle of environmental shocks and organizational responses. Managerial implications are discussed along with suggestions for future research.     

Perception of ‘economic reality’ with Design and Technology

Conclusion It has been argued that Design and Technology teachers would be helped by clear distinction between the terms, industry, business and economic. This would help to avoid the confusion between particular ways of viewing business (eg. through an economic concept such as profit maximisation;) and the multi-faceted character of the activity under observation. By this reasoning, the economic dimension of Design and Technology resides in the analysis of needs and the evaluation of products according to the value of the resources used up, and the value and distribution of the resources and products created. The link with discussion of value judgements in the subject (eg. Riggs and Conway, 1991) is very clear. So also is the dependence of this analysis on the definition of needs and evaluation and, crucially, the perceived relationship between the two, in learning and classroom practice.