贫富差距、供求弹性与房价*

近些年，中国的贫富差距和房价居高不下，但现有文献忽视供求弹性与贫富差距交互作用对房价的影响。据此，本文构建结合贫富差距和供求弹性的住房存量调整模型，使用中国2002—2012年7省份33个城市的UHS数据发现，收入和财富的基尼系数对房价有正影响；供求弹性对房价分别有负影响和正影响；收入和财富基尼系数与供求弹性交互项对房价分别有正影响和负影响。据此，为防止房价泡沫，各级政府一方面应缩小贫富差距，另一方面应增加土地和住房供给。     

论住房的刚性需求

住房刚性需求是需求收入弹性较大而价格弹性较小的具有一定购买力的消费性需求。在刚性需求内部具有不同级别的"刚性",刚性渐减的顺序是货币化的拆迁性需求、婚房需求、改善型需求。对于不同性质的城市,其住房刚性需求是不同的,政治性城市住房刚性需求比较大,开放性城市刚性需求变化较大;在现阶段,由于房价财富幻觉导致了刚性需求加速效应和叠加效应。制度变迁、房价和收入都是影响住房刚性需求的重要因素。     

Estimation of the effects of price on apartment water demand using cointegration and error correction techniques

Water price is a key instrument in regulating water demand in the residential sector. Many empirical studies have assessed the effects of price through quantifying the price elasticity of water demand. However, most of these studies have mainly focused on the single-family housing rather the multifamily housing. An in-depth understanding of the price elasticity of multifamily housing water demand is paramount for water planners in order to properly manage water use in the fast growing intensive housing developments in urban areas. This study investigates both the long-term and short-term price elasticities of water demand in the residential apartments in Auckland central city. Using 6 years of monthly time series data, the price elasticities were estimated through cointegration and error correction methods. The results showed that the price elasticities of water demand were ?0.14 and ?0.12 in the short term and the long term, respectively. The price is inelastic yet negative and statistically significant, thus it can play a role in demand management.     

Determinants of residential water demand in Germany

We econometrically analyze the impact of several economic, environmental and social determinants for the per capita demand for water in about 600 water supply areas in Germany. Besides prices, income and household size, we consider the effects of population age, the share of wells, housing patterns, precipitation and temperature. We also explore why current per capita residential water consumption in the new federal states is about 30% lower than in the old federal states. Since average cost pricing may cause an endogeneity problem, we apply instrumental-variable procedures in addition to single equation ordinary least squares, but find no evidence that prices are endogenous. Our estimation results suggest that the price elasticity of water demand in Germany is around − 0.24. The income elasticity is positive, decreases with higher income levels and is at least three times higher in the new federal states than in the old federal states. Current differences in prices and income levels explain about one third of the gap in residential water use between the two regions. Household size and the share of wells have a negative impact on per capita water demand, and water use increases with age. Finally, the findings provide some evidence that rainfall patterns rather than total rainfall affect water consumption, while temperature appears to have no impact at all. All outcomes are robust to a log-log and two types of semi-log specifications for the water demand function.     

A model of the impact of transportation investment on land rents

A monocentric model of urban space with production and residential areas identified is exercised to indicate the possible impacts of transportation investments on land rents. The price elasticity of demand for outputs and the elasticity of the supply of inputs to the urban area are important determinates of the level of rents. The model is useful for identifying the distributional consequences of transportation investments, and has the potential of being used to identify optimal financing schemes.     

城镇居民不同收入群体消费行为分析

按照家庭收入由低到高将城镇居民划分成四个收入群体,并应用带有家庭属性的AIDS模型分析每个收入群体的消费行为。研究结果表明,随着家庭收入的上升,城镇居民对于大多数商品消费的支出弹性和价格弹性呈下降趋势;城镇居民家庭用品和交通通讯消费富有支出弹性和价格弹性。因此,政府提高低收入群体的收入水平,通过财政政策使家庭用品和交通通讯商品的价格降低,可以有效地刺激城镇居民的消费。     

Forecasting demand for electricity in Maryland: An econometric approach

Most of the models for forecasting demand for energy are based on simple extrapolations of past trends or on a simple regression equation with price of the energy and the stock of appliances as explanatory variables. In this paper, an attempt has been made to derive static and dynamic multiple regression equations from economic theory of consumption and production (Section II). Historical data were fitted to these theoretical constructs to test the equations in terms of econometric theory and forecast the demand according to “higher order conditional interval forecasts”. The residential demand for electricity is a function of its price, price of its substitute, per capita income and a lagged demand variable for dynamic adjustment of actual demand to equilibrium demand for electricity. The forecasts of residential demand to 1990 are based on projections of exogenous variables such as residential price of electricity, per capita income and the estimated long run elasticity of demand (Section III). The nonresidential demand for electricity is a function of employment in that sector, sectoral prices of electricity and the lagged sectoral demand. The forecasts of nonresidential electricity demand are also based on projections of its independent variables (Section IV). The last section converts the total demand for electricity into the required generating capacities and juxtaposes them against the estimates of expected supplies available from the forecasts of the utilities. The paper concludes that the eighties will be faced with excess supply of electricity in Maryland, in case the assumptions of projections of independent variables hold good. The misallocation of resources inherent in such excess supplies could be avoided if realistic scenerios of future demand, as attempted in this paper, could be predicted.     

The incidence of heterogeneous residential property taxes

In an economy with multiple tax jurisdictions, the distribution of the burden of heterogeneous residential property taxes is shown to depend on the elasticity of demand for housing, the elasticity of substitution between land and capital in housing production, the elasticity of supply of land to individual tax jurisdictions, and the degree of population mobility between tax jurisdictions. It is demonstrated that the excise effects of the residential property tax may not cancel across jurisdictions and the average rate of tax may overstate or understate the burden on residential capital.     

当前房地产价格走势与宏观调控策略选择

房地产价格形成的基础具有其他商品所没有的特殊性。面对房地产价格快速上涨的态势，为了既不伤害房地产业的健康发展，又能有效满足广大城市居民对住宅的需求，应当把宏观调控的切入点放在直接调近代房地产供求。稳定房地产价格的关键在于实现有效供求平衡。     

Universal telecommunication service: A world perspective

Worldwide telecommunications demand is estimated in models for business and residential mainline telephone, and for mobile telephone service using separate models for developed and developing countries for the period 1996–2001. We test for cross-price elasticities between mainline and mobile service and find that the results are generally suggestive of current complementary relationships. We find residential monthly price elasticity to be no different than zero for a sample of developing countries, but the connection elasticity is statistically significant. Mobile monthly service elasticity is much larger than those for mainline service, suggesting that universal service in developing countries might be promoted more effectively with subsidies for mobile service. Income elasticities for the residential model are modest while the mobile service model income elasticity for developing countries is much higher. Expanding markets, income growth and enhanced education may be the ultimate universal service promoters.     

Are price strategies effective in managing demand of high residential water users?

Encouraging water use efficiency and water conservation is one of the primary goals of water utility companies nationwide. This study estimates price elasticity of residential water demand to measure the responsiveness of water use to price changes, particularly for high water users. Household-level water use data for high residential water users from Central Florida were analysed using 3-stage least square (3SLS). Estimated price elasticity ranges between ?0.07 and ?0.14. This price elasticity estimate is below most of the estimates reported in the literature (in absolute value). The results imply that for price strategies to be effective in managing water demand of high residential water users, a significant price increase would be needed. Overall, this study highlights the importance of designing water conservation policies tailored to specific groups of customers, and the importance of using these strategies effectively and fairly for different customer groups.     

房地产税收对商品房价格的影响研究

中国房地产市场的需求弹性小于供给弹性,政府对房产拥有者征税,税收负担其实更多地落在了购房者身上。中国现行的房地产税制对于稳定房地产市场,抑制过度投机,降低商品房价格的作用不明显。应改变住房需求弹性,在房地产保有环节征税,促进中国房地产市场的健康发展。     

Explaining UK house price inflation 1971–89

An econometric analysis of UK house price inflation and changes in residential construction is presented for the period 1971–89, paying particular attention to the supply side of the housing market. The results of this analysis are used to examine the contributions of the various factors to the nominal rate of house price inflation. While the results confirm the importance of real disposable income in determining house prices, they indicate that supply variables may be of greater importance than interest rates in this respect. There are close similarities between the three housing booms of the 1970s and 1980s.     

基于利润空间模型的保障房政策建议——以北京市为例

本文从住房供需关系入手,以适宜房价收入比为约束,运用利润空间拟合供需函数,模拟房屋交易最优供给与价格,分析了北京市住房供应现状,并且核算了保障性住房受益群体的平均家庭总收入范围。以2013年的北京市保障房供应量,2011年的居住人口计算,若单依靠政府供应保障性住房,仅解决户籍内人口的住房问题就需要至少10年,若考虑暂住人口要全面解决住房问题需要时间至少翻一番,所以政府增加房屋的有效供给成为当下解决住房问题的关键。本文的建议是:北京市应大量供应保障性住房,暂时实施只租不售的住房政策,快速解决住房需求;在保障供给的前提下,为缓解资金压力,可逐步出售廉租房,出售价格可基于利润空间模型模拟,这样能有效防止出现大量"夹心层"。住房总供给量越高,廉租房的交易价格与商品房的交易价格差距越小,当二者相等时,政府无需再提供保障房,住房市场趋于稳定。     

我国城市工业地价影响因素及力度的计量分析

地价是经济学中的重要课题,它是都市的语言,是都市的环境与功能的综合值。用计量经济学的方法,分供求二方取人口、经济、区位、政府行为等四大板块中的基本要素对我国工业地价的相关性与影响力度进行探讨。从相关性看：城市设施因素与工业地价相关性较弱;大区位因素与工业地价相关性较强。房产税额、耕地占用税额、本年购置的土地面积等政府行为因素与工业地价相关性较强;余者与工业地价相关性较弱。从影响力度看：工业地价对经济、政府行为、区位因素的弹性系数总体呈现一种矛盾、混乱的特征,佐证了中国工业地价违背客观规律性的现象。剔除其混乱因素,仍可看出大区位因素对工业地价影响的力度要大于经济因素,土地类税额对工业地价影响的力度微乎其微;反映了地方政府在工业化过程中对土地的掠夺性开发利用。     

House price dynamics: Evidence from Beijing

To study the house price dynamics in China, this paper extends the traditional life-cycle model by incorporating land supply, regime shifts and government regulation factors. The models are estimated with an error correction framework using quarterly data from 2000 to 2007 in Beijing. The conclusions are as follows. (1) There exits a stable co-integration relationship between house price and fundamentals; land supply and financial regimes are also important determinants of long-run equilibrium house prices. (2) Short-run dynamics depend on changes of fundamentals and the adjustment process of housing market. Land supply has a significant impact on house price fluctuations while demand factors such as user costs, income and residential mortgage loan have greater influences. The adjustment speed of real house prices to the long-run equilibrium has been reduced significantly since 2005 which means exogenous shocks can cause prolonged deviation of real house prices from the equilibrium level.     

Supply Elasticity Estimates for the Sydney Housing Market

This article presents estimates of the supply elasticity for residential property in metropolitan Sydney over the period 1991–2006. Our results suggest that supply is inelastic—less than unity—for all types of housing, although the supply elasticity is relatively larger for strata properties (apartments and flats) than for non‐strata properties (separate and semi‐detached houses, terraces and townhouses). We also find evidence of a significant fall in supply elasticity between 1991–1996 and 2001–2006. When the median time taken by a local council to decide on a development application is included in the supply curve, it is found to have a negative effect on the supply of residential property. However, split‐sample estimates indicate this effect is largely confined to the 1991–1996 period.     

长三角房地产市场的价格差异及决定因素

城市的房地产价格能充分反映所在地区经济发展水平、人口集聚、资金流动和居民的消费偏好等有关信息.长三角城市群房地产市场显现较明显的体系分层结构,为研究房屋价格差异的决定因素提供了很好的素材.文章用长三角16个城市2000-2004年房地产市场的数据,揭示了需求差异是决定长三角地区城市间房屋价格差异的主要因素.其中,城市之间在居民人均收入和非农人口比例的差异又是决定各个城市对住房存在不同需求的主导因素.然而,我们同时发现,人均房屋竣工面积等供给因素对房屋价格并没有显著的影响.这说明当前长三角城市群的房地产市场价格差异主要由需求因素决定,供给因素起到的作用较弱.     

Tax,credit constraints,and the big costs of small inflation

This paper develops a heterogeneous‐agent overlapping generations model that examines how the neutrality of the tax system with respect to inflation depends on the price elasticity of the housing supply. The model, which endogenises house prices and rents, and which incorporates detailed tax regulations and bank‐imposed credit constraints, shows (a) inflation has large effects on the tenure arrangements of young households irrespective of the housing supply elasticity; and (b) inflation can improve the welfare of some low income young households if the supply is sufficiently elastic. The welfare costs of inflation are reduced by taxing real rather than nominal interest.     

房价上涨与中国城市“新二元结构”的加剧

中国城市中以外来流动人口与本地居民收入差距扩大为特征的“新二元结构”正在制造新的不平等。本文理论分析发现：房价上涨导致城市本地居民收入提高、外来流动人口收入下降。本文将2014—2015年全国流动人口动态监测数据匹配到251个城市，实证检验表明房价上涨显著加剧了城市“新二元结构”，该结论在不同子样本与稳健性检验中都成立；作用机制检验表明房价通过引起城市本地居民收入提高与外来流动人口收入下降加剧了城市“新二元结构”。