户籍歧视的政治经济学分析

本文从政治经济学的角度分析了我国户籍歧视的表现、原因及相应的对策。笔者认为,我国劳动力市场中户籍歧视主要表现为就业歧视和工资歧视,其深层原因是:制度因素(包括正式制度和非正式制度)导致对农村迁移劳动力的就业歧视,而工资歧视是市场经济条件下企业最大化利润的理性行为。因此,要消除户籍歧视,必须实行配套改革,降低城市户口的含金量;改革农地制度,发展农村经济;提高农民工的人力资本;加强劳动者权益保障等。     

中国劳动力市场就业机会的户籍歧视及其变化趋势

文章首先厘清了劳动力市场分割理论与歧视经济学的区别和联系,并将中国劳动力市场上就业机会的户籍不平等现象界定为以农民工平等就业权利受侵害为本质的经济歧视.其次,使用中国家庭收入调查(CHIP)2002年和2007年数据,运用多元logit模型考察了中国劳动力市场上就业机会的户籍歧视状况和变化趋势.实证分析结果显示:(1)与城镇职工相比,农民工在职业获得、行业进入和所有制部门进入三个维度上都遭受了明显的户籍歧视;(2)与2002年相比,2007年就业机会的户籍歧视呈现恶化趋势,显示了经济发展过程中就业机会分配的“负滴漏效应”;(3)农民工人力资本的就业机会回报显著低于城镇职工,这对农民工的人力资本投资决策可能会产生负向激励并导致“前市场歧视”的发生.最后,在理论和实证分析的基础上,文章提出了缓解就业机会户籍歧视的相关政策建议.     

基于户籍制度的教育回报差异:对工资歧视的再考察

利用2005年全国1%人口抽样调查数据,分析了我国东南部十一个省份就业者基于户籍制度的收入差异。户口类型对于工资的影响可以被不同户口类型人群的教育回报差距所解释。不同户口类型人群间教育回报的差距随着教育年限的下降而显著扩大。这一结果支持了在解释基于户籍制度的工资歧视的合理性方面信息经济学的有关理论。我国城乡间义务教育水平的差距引起了基于户籍制度的教育回报差异,进而导致了基于户籍类型的工资歧视。     

城乡户籍与人力资本收益——基于广东省截面数据的观察

利用广东省各地区制造业企业劳动力情况的4443个样本截面调研数据,分析城乡户籍就业劳动力人力资本回报情况.研究表明,在社会主义市场经济改革进程中,行政权力和市场力量常常以不同的结合形态相互交织在一起,通过不同的方式改变着劳动力在户籍方面的结构特征和劳动力市场条件,从而决定着当前城乡户籍就业人力资本回报的基本格局及其变化路径.各地区户籍分组的人力资本收益率的变化显著存在差异,劳动力流动和劳动力培训在广东省的市场化收益体现得还不是很明显,尤其是劳动合同的签订情况是在劳动力市场合约谈判和履行中特别需要关注的一个问题.     

中国农民工多维贫困及其户籍影响

本文以CFPS家庭数据为样本,借鉴A-F多维贫困测算框架,重新估计了中国25个省份在教育、健康、医保、就业和收入等五个维度的多维贫困.在此基础上,笔者引入户籍制度变量来解释农民工多维贫困的原因.研究发现﹕ 户籍制度本身隐含着对流入人口的制度性歧视,在很大程度上限制了农民工群体的自由流动和迁移,降低了个体外出寻求就业机会的可能性,进而加剧了农民工群体的多维贫困和不平等程度.进一步研究发现﹕ 教育机会、就业机会和收入水平是户籍制度影响个体多维贫困的主要途径.具体而言﹕ 第一,户籍身份隐含教育机会和教育质量的不均等,导致教育回报率城乡差距的进一步扩大,进而影响农民工的教育选择与教育投入.第二,劳动者户籍身份的差异导致农民工获取就业机会不均等,但是就业机会不均等的影响深度随着教育年限的增加将会逐步被削弱.第三,劳动力市场对非城镇户籍劳动者的收入歧视依然存在,导致农民工落入多维贫困的概率更高.这也意味着,现阶段户籍制度所隐含的社会分割在改革进程中尚未从根本上扭转,因而进一步推进户籍制度改革,提升教育质量,缩小城乡教育回报差距,是改善就业与收入机会不均等的关键.     

城市落户门槛、就业歧视与农民工同乡聚居

结合城市落户门槛指数和中国乡城流动人口数据，实证研究了城市落户门槛影响农民工同乡聚居的机理。研究发现，城市落户门槛会显著提升农民工同乡聚居的概率。异质性分析发现，城市落户门槛对农民工同乡聚居的影响会因户籍性质而存在差异，落户门槛的提高会显著提升拥有外市户籍农民工的同乡聚居概率。机制分析表明，就业歧视是城市落户门槛影响农民工同乡聚居的重要机制，即随着城市落户门槛的提高，农民工在劳动力市场上面临的就业机会歧视越严重，为了规避就业歧视以更好地实现就业，进而会选择与同乡聚居。基于此，研究认为应加大户籍制度改革和相关政策调整力度，放宽放开城市落户门槛，进一步消除城市就业歧视。     

我国农民工工资水平非公平性的实质与根源

我国农民工工资水平不以其劳动力供求为导向而长期偏低甚至被扭曲、及其与社会经济发展不一致所透露的非公平性,直接取决于农民工在其工资决定中的弱势地位,包括供求弱势、机会成本弱势、人力资本弱势和劳动力市场属性弱势。而农民工的弱势性又根源于具有显著城市偏向和歧视因素特征的城乡关系,正是后者通过对农业生产收益、公共产品供给等方面的制约决定了农民工的上述弱势。农民工工资水平问题实际上根源于重城轻农、抑农的城乡关系,而改变这种城乡关系、构建新型城乡关系则是实现农民工工资水平公平性的前提。     

新一轮户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应：理论机制与经验证据

在中国人口红利机会窗口逐步缩窄背景下,需要对新一轮户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应进行评估。通过构建一个劳动力多元化流动决策的分析框架,阐释户籍改革影响劳动力城乡再配置的理论机制,并基于2012—2018年中国家庭追踪调查数据进行实证分析。研究发现：新一轮户籍改革显著促进了农村劳动力向城市转移,与未放开户籍管制的城市相比,放开落户限制城市持有农业户口且在农村地区就业的劳动力减少了3.4%,该效应可进一步分解为持有非农户口劳动力比重增加1.9%,流动人口比重增加1.5%;户籍改革引致的落户门槛降低和公共服务均等化,在降低迁徙成本的同时提高了迁徙收益,促进了劳动力城乡间的再配置;城市财政压力、户籍所在地的农地价值、迁徙的心理与社会融入成本以及不稳定就业均会对户籍改革的劳动力城乡再配置效应形成制约。拓展性分析表明,城市间落户政策差异引致的劳动力城乡再配置会进一步扩大特大城市与其他城市人力资本差距。因此,应进一步深化户籍制度改革,降低一线城市落户门槛,同时促进基本公共服务均等化,充分释放劳动力城乡再配置潜力。     

数字经济发展与农民工城市留居意愿——人力资本异质性视角的分析

将2012—2018年中国流动人口动态监测数据与北京大学数字普惠金融指数相匹配形成混合截面数据，本文在县域层面分析流入城市数字经济发展对农民工长期留城意愿的影响。工具变量估计结果表明，城市数字经济发展对农民工长期留居意愿具有正向影响。数字经济指数每提升一个标准差，农民工留城意愿增加10.3%。数字经济对留城意愿的促进作用存在人力资本异质性，对高人力资本农民工的影响较低人力资本农民工高1.3%。机制分析表明，支付便利性是人力资本异质性的主要原因。尽管数字经济发展引致城市劳动力需求结构偏向高人力资本农民工，但学习效应下低人力资本农民工更快的劳动生产率提升缩小了两类农民工的工资差距。本文为数字经济时代下农民工福祉问题与新型城镇化建设的讨论提供了新视角。     

开发区农民工市民化的研究

城乡分割的二元社会和户籍制度,使农民工干着工人的活儿,却是农民的身份,不能完全被城市接纳,不管是从户籍,教育,还是社保,都有着明显差别,影响了“农民工”市民化的推进步伐。     

不同期限类型劳动合同的工资决定机制及差异——基于中国家庭住户收入调查数据的经验研究

文章利用2002年住户收入调查(CHIP)数据对我国不同期限类型劳动合同的工资决定机制及工资差异进行了经验研究。结果发现,长期劳动合同与短期劳动合同的工资差异符合补偿性工资差别理论,企业对没有签订劳动合同的员工存在工资歧视。排除特征因素和选择性因素,长期劳动合同工的工资比短期劳动合同工低42.84%,比无劳动合同员工高29.6%。文章研究表明:短期劳动合同没有对生产率表现出显著的负面影响,提升劳动合同签订率是比限制短期劳动合同使用更为合适的劳动政策。     

劳动力市场的所有制分割与城乡收入差距

目前缺少系统的农民工工资的面板数据妨碍了对城镇劳动力市场的所有制分割如何影响城乡收入差距的研究。本文证明城镇集体经济部门的平均工资可以作为农民工工资的代理变量,并将城镇国有部门的平均工资与集体部门的平均工资的比例作为衡量城镇劳动力市场所有制分割的指标。笔者通过对中国1978—2008年间省际面板数据的回归分析发现,劳动力市场的所有制分割本身具有扩大城乡收入差距的效应,但是,非国有部门职工比重的增加会削弱所有制分割的影响,从而有助于缩小城乡收入差距。     

The welfare costs of union wage compression

This paper calculates the quantitative significance of the welfare costs of union wage compression. This is done in a dynamic general equilibrium model with overlapping generations where agents choose both schooling (human capital) and assets (physical capital). The labor market in this model is characterized as a right-to-manage contract, which allows unions to compress wage differentials between high- and low-skilled workers, by implementing a binding minimum wage. This paper shows that when labor markets are competitive even low levels of wage compression lead to large welfare losses, since wage compression creates costly unemployment among low-skilled workers. The effect of wage compression on the supply of skilled labor, however, is rather small, since the disincentive effect of a lower, high-skilled wage is, to a large extent, offset by a lower opportunity cost of schooling due to higher unemployment.     

Does Outsourcing Provision Lead to Wage Inequality? New Evidence from Thailand's Establishment‐level Data

The impacts of outsourcing provision—the arrangements whereby a firm carries out production stages for other firms—are examined on wage differentials between skilled and unskilled workers using Thailand's establishment‐level data. The estimates based on a translog production function indicate that outsourcing provision augments productivity of both skilled and unskilled labor and contributes positively to wage inequality. The model predicts that a 1% increase in outsourcing provision leads to a rise in wage differentials by nearly 2.5%. The robustness check further reveals that the impacts of services provision on wage inequality are more pronounced than those of materials provision. These results highlight the importance of outsourcing provision as a new explanation of the widening skilled–unskilled wage gap in developing countries which typically emerge as a hub of outsourcing provision.     

Unemployment,Wage Inequality and International Factor Movement in the Presence of Agricultural Dualism

This paper investigates how the international factor movements affect the unemployment and skilled–unskilled wage inequality with the existence of a modern agricultural sector. Our research has the new feature that we not only consider that the rural labor migrates to the urban sector but also to the modern agricultural sector. The main conclusions are that the unskilled labor outflow certainly decreases the wage inequality and unemployment rate and the influences that skilled labor movement and capital inflow have on wage inequality and unemployment rate are dependent on the factor intensity between the urban and modern agricultural sectors.     

城乡分割、区域分割与流动人口 社会保障缺失*

基于大规模的流动人口调查数据,本文研究了城乡分割和区域分割对城市外来流动人口社会保障的影响。利用变量法的IVProbit模型进行回归估计,尝试解决劳动者的工资与参加社会保险之间的内生性问题。研究结果发现：第一,外来流动人口参加社会保险存在严重的城乡分割和区域分割效应;第二,区域分割效应大于城乡分割效应;第三,若不解决工资与社会保险参保之间的内生性问题,则将低估外来流动人口参加社会保险的城乡分割效应和区域分割效应。     

Rural–urban human capital disparity and skilled–unskilled wage inequality in China

This paper builds three‐sector general equilibrium models to investigate how a shrink of rural–urban human capital disparity generates an impact on skilled–unskilled wage inequality in China. In the basic model where the urban skilled sector and the urban unskilled sector have no upstream and downstream linkage, we find that the wage inequality will be narrowed down if the urban skilled sector is more capital intensive than the urban unskilled sector. To capture the characteristic of China's state capitalism, we build an extended model where the urban skilled sector acts as an upstream industry for the urban unskilled sector, and find that the wage inequality will be reduced if the substitution elasticity of unskilled labor and intermediate product in the urban unskilled sector is large enough. When we consider the factual characteristics of the Chinese economy, our models predict that a shrink of rural–urban human capital disparity will be helpful to reduce the skilled–unskilled wage inequality in China.     

Redistributive pensions in the developing world

Redistributive so‐called social pension schemes have seen a remarkable surge in developing countries. These schemes often target the rural elderly and correlate with urbanization rates, urban rural‐wage differentials, and family norms. We use this stylized evidence to motivate a political economy model for a Beveridgean pension system with trade‐offs between four groups: the (poorer) rural old and young, and the (richer) urban old and young. We show under which conditions governments will install a pension system and increase its generosity as the share of the urban population rises, productivity differentials between urban and rural workers widen, or the social norm erodes. Our conclusion is that the role of the rural–urban divide in shaping redistribution merits more scholarly attention, as the gap between cities and the countryside widens in many developing countries.     

国家职业资格证书、工人技能水平和收入效应——来自5家制造型企业21个生产车间的经验证据

推行国家职业资格证书是我国劳动就业政策的重要内容,也是广大劳动者非学历职业教育的主要方式,对加强技能人才培养、促进劳动力市场建设等方面具有重要意义。本文利用5家制造型企业21个生产车间的调查数据,对国家职业资格证书与工人的技能水平和年收入之间的关系进行了研究。研究发现,获得国家职业资格证书的工人在技能水平上显著高于无证工人,证书等级越高,技能水平越高。与无证工人相比,初级工和中级工证书的收入效应约为9.5%,高级工证书的收入效应为11.0%,技师及以上等级证书的收入效应显著上升至24.0%。进一步的分析揭示,初级工、中级工和高级工证书的收入效应主要是因为工人技能水平提高带来的;技师以上等级证书的收入效应一方面来源于工人技能水平的提高,另一方面则是由一些非技能因素造成的。     

Differential rewards to, and contributions of, education in urban China's segmented labor markets

Abstract. Using worker data from a 1999–2000 urban enterprise survey, we examine the effects of education on the current earnings of continuously employed urban workers, migrants and laid off but subsequently re‐employed workers. We also decompose the earnings differentials between each of these groups of workers and then assess the contribution of education to explanations of the differentials. The empirical results demonstrate that returns to education increase with marketization and competition in the workplace. We also find educational attainment to be an important explanator of the earnings differentials between institutionally differentiated groups of workers in China's urban labor markets.