The policy and praxis of compensation for land expropriations in China: An appraisal from the perspective of social exclusion

Land acquisition and the subsequent issues incurred have recently become a prominent social issue in China. Aiming to proffer a more in-depth understanding of this unique land-use procedure (in comparison to that in European nations such as the Netherlands and Germany), this paper first reviews the evolvement of land acquisition policies since the introduction of the Open-Door Policy in the late 1970s, and assesses the impact of these policies on land-lost farmers from the perspective of social exclusion. The major findings are: (1) although existing policies on land acquisition, particularly in terms of compensation, have been gradually improved in nominal terms, land-lost farmers are still subjected to various forms of exclusion in the society; (2) the central government should consider revising the existing measures regarding social security, and introduce other supplementary policies that help enhance their competitiveness in the labour market (such as occupational training) and discourage the cultural, psychological, and social network exclusions, in the backdrop of rural–urban disparity in order to address the potential social issues caused by the influx of land-lost farmers in the cities.     

Capitalization of land development rights in rural China: A choice experiment on individuals’ preferences in peri-urban Shanghai

The capitalization of land development rights is acknowledged as the key to improving compensations for rural landholders and ameliorating land-related social conflicts in peri-urban China. Investigations into reasonable as well as feasible compensation standards and the capitalization mechanism are yet to be done. This study uses a survey-based choice experiment to empirically estimate the value of land development rights in peri-urban Shanghai for three forms of rural land conversion – acquisition, consolidation and (informal) sale. The results show that heterogeneity across individuals’ preferences translates into different utilities from land development, which affects individual’s willingness to participate in this process. This effect is found to be the strongest for land sales on the informal market. If, however, land conversion is managed by local governments and rural collectives, the expected utilities of individuals have no significant effect on the amount of land development. The results suggest that capitalizing land development rights under consideration of land attributes and individuals’ preferences would lift compensation standard to a level that strikes a balance among competing land-related interests. In addition, it would promote China’s land development by bypassing the institutional constraints imposed by the current land tenure system.     

农地征收补偿中地方政府与失地农民之间的博弈分析

随着我国城市化、工业化的加速发展,大量农村土地被征用,在这一过程中引发的征地补偿问题也引起了社会各界和学术界的关注.从博弈论的角度,通过分析农村土地征收中失地农民和地方政府之间的利益关系,得出了促使纳什均衡结果合理化的因素变动关系,为我国农村土地征收补偿制度改革提出了建议.     

我国征地补偿制度改革探讨

土地征用制度是我国一项基本土地制度，征地过程是集体土地转变为国有土地的所有权转变过程，强制性和补偿性是其两个基本特征，但现行征地补偿范围和补偿标准仍是计划经济思路，已产生了诸多问题，对其进行改革实为必要；透视了我国现行征地补偿制度的特点和缺陷，在分析评价当前改革观点和实践尝试的基础上，提出了生存权补偿概念并给出了其计算模型，提出了按土地评估价格全额补偿的理念并探讨了其保障体系建设。     

其他方式承包的农村土地经营权征收补偿案例探讨

研究目的:分析农村土地利用中以其他方式承包农村土地经营权征收补偿问题,探讨如何对土地征收补偿的法律框架进行适当调整。研究方法:案例分析法。研究结果:在确认其他方式承包的土地经营权为物权的基础上,分析了土地征收补偿现有分配方案的缺陷,以天津市郊区某葡萄园被征收为例,探讨了由于土地征收导致承包合同终止后,土地发包方给予承包方适当经济补偿的理论依据和测算方法。研究结论:补偿数额的确定应以可预见的损失为依据。     

低效建设用地减量化对乡村转型发展的影响研究 ——基于上海市的扎根理论分析

研究目的：以上海市青浦区、浦东新区和金山区为例,剖析减量化对乡村转型发展的影响效果及机理,探索减量化实施对乡村转型发展的推动作用。研究方法：采用扎根理论的质性研究方法,通过深度访谈收集原始资料,经过三级编码过程,提炼总结减量化对乡村转型发展的影响。研究结果：资源配置是减量化对乡村转型发展的核心影响,产业发展和生态保护是减量化对乡村转型发展的直接影响,社会治理、民生保障和文化传承是减量化对乡村转型发展的间接影响。研究结论：注重减量化的规划引导,依托减量化政策大力推动产业升级、转移和生态文明战略的实施,完善落实减量化配套政策,构建合理的减量化指标使用方和供给方之间的增值收益补偿机制,以及合理保障村民和村集体的基本权益是实现减量化推进乡村转型发展目标的有效路径。     

基于公平思想的失地农民福利补偿——以江汉平原4城市为例

研究目的：研究农地城市流转过程中失地农民福利的公平补偿价值,缓解由于征地以及不公平补偿带来的各种问题。研究方法：在对4城市失地农民以及相关主体调查的基础上,运用SPSS 15.0中的Cronbach’s a系数测试样本可靠度,并运用还原法、替代法和CVM法对处理后的数据进行计算。研究结果：基于公平思想的水田、旱地、菜地的总福利补偿价值分别为3414447元/ hm 2、3426994.5元/ hm 2和5158972.5元/ hm 2。研究结论：在征地补偿时应重视流转中正的社会福利效应,公平地对农民损失进行补偿。     

Changes in farmers’ welfare from land requisition in the process of rapid urbanization

The marked impact of the welfare gap on total welfare within collectives has rarely, if at all, been addressed in traditional welfare theories and in Amartya Sen's theory of welfare functioning and capabilities. With this observation as our starting point, we constructed a research framework that combined welfare functioning, the welfare gap, and welfare capability to assess and analyze changes in the welfare of farmers whose land was requisitioned in Zhejiang province. The findings of our study were as follows. (1) The total welfare functioning of farmers whose land was requisitioned increased by 11.8% as a result of improvements in economic and dwelling conditions and community surroundings. However, social security and psychological conditions deteriorated. (2) Although total welfare functioning has improved, gaps are widening in the distribution of welfare functioning among farmers who underwent land requisition. This was evidenced by the increase of the weighted Gini coefficient, which rose from 0.26 to 0.32 after land requisition. (3) As a result of the improvement in welfare capability, a judgmental bias is evident when farmers assess whether they have gained or lost welfare after land requisition. We conclude that welfare studies should focus not only on the quantitative aspects of welfare distribution, but should also pay more attention to its fairness and impartiality. This can prevent social problems posed by an oversized welfare gap. Moreover, after land requisition, the government and community should provide education and training services, and the current one-time compensation model should be replaced by a lifelong compensation model. At the same time, endowment insurance should be extended in rural areas and urban medical insurance should be progressively incorporated into the social security benefits of farmers who have undergone land requisition.     

开发区失地农民补偿安置及生存状况研究 ——以泰安市高新技术产业开发区为例

研究目的：通过泰安高新技术产业开发区失地农民补偿安置案例,透视开发区失地农民生存状况,发现开发区失地农民补偿安置方面的问题,找出解决开发区失地农民问题的方向。研究方法：田野调查法、对比分析法。研究结果：（1）泰安开发区土地征收补偿标准符合国家法律规定;新房抵旧屋的房屋拆迁补偿方式深受农民欢迎。（2）土地征收使当地农民就业率小幅下降,但农民就业结构明显改善。（3）开发区失地农民当前的生存状况良好,但缺乏长期的生存保障机制。研究结论：防止失地农民生存状况恶化,解除失地农民后顾之忧的根本措施在于做好失地农民的就业安置和社会保障。     

因地制宜地稳妥推进留地安置 ——基于对10余省份留地安置的调研

研究目的：研究留地安置制度的做法及存在问题,为改革和完善中国农村征地制度提供参考建议。研究方法：实地调研、政策分析、案例分析。研究结果：留地安置的实质是在法律规定的补偿费用之外增加了一部分实物补偿,其实质是农民分享了一部分土地增值收益。各地在实践中探索出了留用地的多种实现途径,经历了从实地到货币化的转变。虽然留地安置在实施中存在一些问题,但方向正确,应从细节入手解决弊端。研究结论：对留地问题宜及早进行规范并明确规定留地安置的法律地位;从源头入手,在规划上预留农民征地后的留用地;虚化区位、固化权益,因地因时探索留用地的多种实现方式。     

征地冲突中利益相关者的博弈分析——以地方政府与失地农民为例

研究目的：构建地方政府与失地农民的博弈模型,找出促使均衡结果合理化的因素变化关系。研究方法：博弈论。研究结果：减小失地农民的维权成本,增加失地农民的征地收益,加大对地方政府违法征地的惩罚力度,可以促使地方政府与失地农民之间博弈均衡更合理化,可以有效抑制地方政府违法征地的冲动,减少失地农民上访维权的现象,避免征地冲突的发生,促进社会经济和谐发展。     

杭州经济技术开发区失地农民生活质量指数评价及影响因素研究

研究目的：对杭州经济技术开发区内失地农民的生活质量情况进行评价并分析其影响因素。研究方法：文献资料法、抽样调查法、AHP及统计分析方法。研究结果：（1）开发区内的失地农民具有相对高的生活质量水平;（2）失地农民生活质量水平的高低受到社会经济发展水平、征地年份、失地农民的个体婚姻状况、职业状况、性别、年龄等因素的影响。研究结论：失地农民生活质量问题是土地征收中的重要内容之一,本研究可为土地征收中相关的失地农民安置问题提供政策参考。     

Small town urbanization in Western China: Villager resettlement and integration in Xi’an

This paper investigates land-related resettlement and integration institutions and policies in small town urbanization from the perspective of affected villagers, focusing on their socioeconomic opportunities and life transformation. Based on the conceptual discourse on rural-urban societal differences, institutional boundaries, and resource redistribution, it examines the process and outcomes of rural villagers’ transformation under land-related local policies and the market, and articulates affected villagers’ viewpoints regarding compensation, resettlement, and integration. By the case of three small towns in metropolitan Xi’an, the paper discusses educational attainments and occupations, household earnings, income compositions, home-workplace commuting patterns and modes, social security programs, and attitudes towards land acquisition and resettlement. The study calls for villager-centered hybrid governance for humanistic planning and management of resettlement communities in small town urbanization.     

Money,Land or self-employment? Understanding preference heterogeneity in landowners’ choices for compensation under land acquisition in India

Land acquisition policies, upon which future land use patterns in India depend, are controversially tied to the question of whether to provide monetary or non-monetary compensation to affected landowners. However, turning to the preferences of landowners for answers only serves to complicate matters, as these are not homogenous on the question. This implies there is a need to identify the underlying factors giving rise to this preference heterogeneity, in order to develop more effective and efficient policy. This paper aims to address this gap using a contingent ranking experiment to study landowner disposition toward a range of compensation options, presented in a survey conducted in an ‘about-to-be-submerged’ region of a large, multi-stage irrigation project in India. Rankings were based on a selection of six compensation options, constituting different combinations of the attributes - cash, land, housing and self-employment. While the results suggest that landowners generally prefer non-monetary compensation, both the size of landholding and level of education of the landholder appear to influence the preferences for different compensation options. We find that landowners with more land or education tended to favour monetary compensation, while those with lower education or less land tended to favour housing and self-employment options. We close the text by exploring possible explanations for this specific form of heterogeneity, including access to information, to networks and capacities for income generation, and providing some reflections on the implications of these results for ensuring that rehabilitation and resettlement policies are both well targeted and effective.     

英国强制征购土地的补偿制度及其借鉴

研究目的:研究英国征购土地补偿制度,为完善中国征地补偿制度提供借鉴。研究方法:文献资料法和比较分析法。研究结果:英国强制征购土地具有完善的补偿制度,在补偿原则、范围、标准、估价方式以及仲裁等方面,均公允地考虑到当事各方的利益,中国征地补偿制度与之相比存在很大差异。研究结论:中国征地补偿制度不能适应当前的市场经济体制,征地补偿制度改革应以逐步适应市场化需求为主要方向。     

对征地制度改革的几点建议

随着社会主义经济快速的发展，现行的征地制度暴露出越来越多的缺陷，故而征地制度亟待完善。本文通过对现行土地征地制度存在缺陷的分析，提出了与当前社会经济背景相适应的征地制度改革思路。     

中国征地补偿制度的经济分析及征地改革建议

研究目的:探索征地补偿制度存在的问题及其改革的方向。研究方法:通过探索征地补偿与农地土地价格的关系,试图回答征地补偿标准高低的问题。对征地补偿制度进行经济分析,结合理论和国际经验探索征地补偿制度改革,提出改革建议。研究结论:(1)《土地管理法》规定的征地补偿标准不一定低于农地的土地价格,特别是在人均耕地面积占有量少的区域和当采用高限的土地补偿倍数和安置补助倍数时;(2)在"一对一"式的征地框架下,单纯提高补偿金难以平息征地中可能产生的种种争议和冲突;(3)"零星式"征地不利于为失地农民提供长期稳定的社会保障;(4)由于土地价值及其增值是由社会和国家(政府)带来的,一方面需要深入研究土地价值的归属,另一方面也要避免过高地补偿征地,过高的征地补偿也会产生(性质不同的)公平问题。笔者就征地改革制度提出建议:(1)"整村"式征地;(2)扩大可征地的范围,变"一对一"式的征地为"一对多"的可能征地关系;(3)改进征地补偿的计算方法,提高征地补偿的公平性;(4)将一次性征地补偿转变为按年支付的社会保险。     

Mining resettlement and rural development in Malaysia

The Malaysian government has employed 3 kinds of resettlement schemes: 1) resettlement of farmers under modern agricultural and land development programs to grow cash crops; 2) resettlement of rural population in well-guarded locations to isolate them from communist insurgents; and 3) resettlement and compensation of population displaced thorough resource exploitation such as construction of dams and mining. The Kinta Valley resettlement is examined in the example of 3 villages where tin mining encroached on their agricultural land. 98 households were included in the sample from Batu Bertudung, Tekka, and Jelutung that had been settled in the 1940s. The villagers were eventually evacuated and sustained technological, pecuniary, and psychological losses. The economic loses involved property, land, and crops, and social losses comprised social networks, neighborhood, and stability. 81.7% of the villagers who were left landless successfully insisted on complete relocation of their villagers in new villages in claims to the respective tin mining companies through their newly formed village action committees in the mid-1960s. The compensation consisted of 1) group compensation by planned resettlement, 2) cash payment, and 3) replacement of the former plot with another piece of land. Social needs were not included in the calculation and the compensation received reflected roughly their economic worth at the time. The villagers of Tekka and Jelutung had their houses rebuilt which were comparable to their old homes using new materials and stronger foundations. Those from Batu Bertudung were resettled in another village, and were compensated in cash to rebuild their homes themselves. Basic amenities were insufficient: new wells had to be dug, the public standpipe was overused, and only dirt roads were constructed. The government provided most basic amenities 5-6 years later under the rural development program.     

新一轮退耕还林对农户收入影响的机理研究 ——基于赣南、鄂北农户调查的实证分析

研究目的：新一轮退耕还林补助资金即将到期之际,分析新一轮退耕还林对农户家庭收入的净效应并揭示其内在机制。研究方法：理论上阐述了新一轮退耕还林政策促进农户收入增长的作用机理,基于赣南、鄂北地区农户调查数据,利用倾向得分匹配法进行实证分析。研究结果：（1）无论是否包含退耕补贴,新一轮退耕还林政策对农户收入有正向影响;（2）退耕林种对农户收入的作用机理不同：种植经济林的农户增加了林果业收入和非农经营收入,减少了工资性收入;种植生态林的农户通过提高工资性收入,进而提高总收入水平。研究结论：新一轮退耕还林加快了农户生计转型的进程。政策实施5年后,农户形成与生态环境相适应且稳定的生产方式,为补偿政策的逐步退出创造有利条件,实现了新一轮退耕还林政策的造血功能。     

双重二元经济条件下失地农民补偿问题研究

本文以福建省为例,探讨失地农民问题形成的原因和双重二元经济条件下现行征地补偿标准的缺陷,指出随着工业化和城市化的发展单位农业用地产值和单位建设用地产值两者之间差距不断扩大,征地补偿标准应综合考虑土地的新用途对产值的边际贡献以及土地利用对当地GDP的贡献。