Assessing the value of non-marketable land: The case of Israel

Non-marketable land often receives a low economic value, leading to the inefficient use of land. Since there is little reference to this subject, it is appropriate to develop a method for estimating the real economic value of non-marketable land, particularly when designated for various public projects. This paper presents an economic model used for estimating the value of non-marketable land in Israel, based on various measures, such as the distance from Israel's central region, socio-economic state, and proximity to the sea. The model allows rapid estimation of land values when examining a certain location for public projects, hence intended to prevent inefficient land use and low profitability of these projects. The model was subsequently used to estimate non-marketable land in four different regions in Israel where there is an interest in establishing public projects. The findings of the model indicate that these lands have high, yet diverse economic values. Furthermore, the results show that the highest land value was calculated for the location where the largest area was allocated. Thus, the model allows the internalization of the true land costs and may assist to select the land with the highest economic feasibility for such projects, preventing the realization of projects that are not economically worthwhile. There are two main options to integrate such a tool in the decision making process: as a statutory tool, or as a tool to be used by environmental organizations.     

无锡市马山区城镇建设用地的经济价值评估

研究目的:评估城镇建设用地的经济价值,尤其是景观用地的价值。研究方法:对成本与效益做出界定,对体现存在价值的景观用地采用意愿调查价值评估法(CVM),其余用地用“成本-效益法”评估。研究结果:在现行用地结构中,第三产业占地比例最大,住宅用地次之,具有存在价值的人文景观用地最小;而用地的效益是商业服务业占第一位,交通与住宅用地分居二、三位。研究结论:城镇建设用地中直接经济价值占98%以上,间接价值及非使用价值所占比例很小,这与建设用地特征有密切关系。     

城市防洪工程对土地增值效益的量化研究

为使水利防洪工程项目的经济评价更趋客观合理,需要对城市防洪工程所带来的土地增值效益进行量化研究。分析在有、无防洪工程情况下土地价值的差异,建立了防洪工程对土地价值的增值效益模型。以钱塘江标准海塘杭州经济技术开发区水利工程为例,应用该模型分析防洪工程对该区域土地增值效益的作用,结果表明,钱塘江标准堤塘工程的建设对杭州经济技术开发区土地具有增值作用,开发区土地增值总效益达23.11亿元。     

The ‘squeezed middle’: Identifying and addressing conflicting demands on intermediate quality farmland in Scotland

The growing demand for a wide range of private and public goods and services from a finite land resource is increasingly challenging for planners at local, regional, national and international scales. The Scottish Government's development of a Land Use Strategy has given salience to resolving conflicts and enhancing synergies in land use. In Scotland, the poorest quality farmland is often designated for nature and landscape conservation and the highest quality farmland often protected for food production. This means that many of the competitive pressures on land are experienced in what we term the ‘squeezed middle’. The paper identifies the multiple (and not exclusively economic) drivers of land use choices and, through an ecosystem services lens, explores three particular areas of land use conflict. These are (i) the continued high level of public support for farming, which has done little to address the problem of low farm incomes; (ii) the pressure to increase woodland planting on farm (and other) land; and (iii) conflicts associated with intensive game management, especially on sporting estates. Using the Scottish situation as an example, the heterogeneity of land use pressures means that there is a danger of the principles of the Land Use Strategy becoming lost in translation from national policy to practical land use decision-making. The appropriate scale for delivery of integrated ecosystem services may therefore be more local than current pilot projects, and may require more active participation of land managers. It may also require policy instruments that are more flexible in adapting to the local context, including payments for ecosystem services.     

长江中游城市群土地利用生态风险分析——以长株潭城市群为例

为揭示城市群发展对区域生态风险的影响,以位于长江经济带的长株潭城市群为研究区,利用1993-2013年Landsat遥感数据,定量获取土地利用变化特征,并基于移动窗口的景观生态风险指数,获得区域空间连续的生态风险指数等级分布图,分析长株潭城市群土地利用动态变化及生态风险时空变化特征。结果表明,近20年来,研究区土地利用变化较为显著,建设用地呈持续增加的趋势,耕地、林地面积在波动中减少且变化明显;近20年,生态风险等级面积变化显著,低风险区波动减少,中等风险区先减少后增加,较高风险区、高风险区均波动性增加。本研究为长株潭城市群土地资源可持续利用、生态风险的有效防范,以及对城市建设用地开发边界和生态红线的确定提供了参考,也为区域生态风险定量评价提供了有效的技术方法。     

大城市边缘区土地利用变化与社会经济发展关系分析——以北京市平谷区为例

大城市边缘区是城市化最敏感、变化最大、最迅速的地区,也是土地利用变化最显著的地区,研究大城市边缘区土地利用变化时空过程及其驱动机制,对实现大城市自身可持续发展具有重要意义。该文采用数理统计与综合分析方法,对北京市平谷区土地利用动态变化及其与GDP、产业结构、消费结构、城镇化以及人口等社会经济发展因素的关系进行了分析。研究结果表明:1996~2004年,平谷区农用地面积持续减少,其中耕地减少较多,园地增长速度较快,林地略有减少。建设用地持续增加,其中交通用地增长速度最快。平谷区的土地利用变化与经济增长、产业升级、城镇化发展、消费结构变化以及人口增长具有显著的相关性,社会经济发展是土地利用变化的主要驱动因素。节约集约土地,提高土地利用效率,调整土地利用结构,促进产业优化升级,保障服务首都北京功能和平谷区域社会经济发展成为平谷区土地利用的必然要求。     

Underground land values

Very often, underground land values appear to be a missing factor in land economics and planning, both at academic and practitioner level. In general, ignoring such a variable and potentially valuable resource may seriously delay any underground land policy to be undertaken. It can lead the public as well as the private sector to a short-sighted over-consumption of shallow subsurface space and under-consumption of deep underground space. Considering subsurface land values in economic studies of underground projects increases their reliability for the decision-making process. This paper shows a theoretical and empirical way to estimate underground land values, with applications.     

Socio-economic effects of agricultural land conversion for urban development: Case study of Hanoi,Vietnam

Agricultural land conversion for urban development is a major process in the vicinity of many cities in Vietnam. This causes problems for the fabric of local society. In this paper, we evaluate four agricultural land’s acquisition projects in two areas (Hoai Duc district and Thanh Oai district) in Hanoi, Vietnam to examine two primary questions: (1) how do farmers obtain any economic benefit from urban development projects? And, (2) how are socio-economic livelihoods of the farmers effected by land conversion? The investigation relied on a market land price's survey using a structured-interview method, in which 395 land-acquired households were randomly selected. The responses indicate that there are unequal benefits among the various stakeholders. On average farmers tend to benefit the least. Although the farmers have the possibility to transform their agricultural livelihood into a non-agricultural one with probably a higher income, they are actually faced with many difficulties in maintaining non-agricultural activities, in finding stable alternative livelihood activities, and in using the compensation for investments.     

Land economic rent computation for urban planning and fiscal purposes

This article proposes an innovative methodology to compute economic rents of land designed to current or potential offices uses. It consists in the establishment of a cause-and-effect relation between offices’ price levels and correspondent levels of land rent, considering the main factors that influence property prices, the ones that guide public and private activities’ location decisions and the inter-dependencies between land and real estate property markets. The rationale subjacent to this research is that land economic rent is determined by the difference between offices market price and a set of costs correspondent to land acquisition, planning and building processes, and a profit margin. An assessment of surplus values is provided in order to compute it as the difference between total land market value (land economic rent plus economic return on land use) and correspondent tributary patrimonial-value according to legal valuation proceedings (settled on property law). In order to reach these goals, variables that exert influence on urban planning and municipal management were identified, an urban management information system was designed and implemented, and an integrated and interactive model to support decisions in urban planning – concerning real estate offices and land prices and characteristics – was developed. These tools were applied as a case study to Oporto city (Portugal). They embody updating functionalities, setting up as an on-going support to policies of municipal land use management (particularly applied to offices uses). A proposal is made to integrate similar models in territorial plans as valuation tools to support better approaches to assess the impact of planning decisions on real estate and land values, thus informing a more equitable, efficient and local-based tax basis. Implications of this analysis for urban planning and fiscal settings are proposed.     

基于土地利用功能最大化的多情景土地利用优化研究

目的 基于土地利用功能价值最大化对自然发展情景、农业生产功能优先情景、经济发展功能优先情景及生态保育功能优先情景下的土地利用结构及布局进行优化,得到2026年保定市土地利用合理结构与布局。方法 文章利用MOP模型优化各情景土地利用结构、FLUS模型优化各情景土地利用空间布局、耦合协调模型分析各情景功能协调性。结果 各情景下草地面积都减少,建设用地及水域面积都增长。除农业生产功能优先情景外,耕地面积都呈下降趋势。经济发展功能优先情景土地利用功能总价值最高,农业生产功能优先情景最低;各情景下建设用地都以外延式增长;林地都以外延式及填充式在山地丘陵地区扩张;农业生产功能优先、经济发展功能优先及生态保育功能优先情景的土地利用结构耦合协调度高于自然发展情景,经济发展功能优先情景下功能间关系最协调。结论 在现行土地利用变化趋势下,未来保定市土地利用功能将严重失调,需严格落实耕地及生态用地保护政策、推动建设用地高效利用,实现土地利用功能协调及价值最大化。     

The forest transition: Towards a more comprehensive theoretical framework

Building on the contributions of Mather and others, this paper offers an approach for developing a more comprehensive theory of the forest transition. We argue that long-run changes in forest cover in a country or region cannot be separated from the overall pattern of land use changes. Moreover, this pattern is determined by relative land values; forest cover changes over time as the value of one land use relative to the value of its competing use changes over time. However, the actual values that are used to allocate land may be far from optimal; that is, the presence of market, policy and institutional failures can distort economic and political incentives that can lead to bias in favour of one type of land use over the other, and may ultimately explain why a forest transition may be delayed unnecessarily in some countries and regions.     

Tendency of land reclamation in coastal areas of Shanghai from 1998 to 2015

Coastal land reclamation is one of the major human interventions in the coastal areas, it is a process undergo in many parts of the world. Land reclamation supplies land for development with urgent needs for coastal cities, and creates the opportunity for rapid urbanization, however, it also influences the integrity of the coastal ecosystem and results in a decline in biodiversity and ecosystem services. Over-exploitation and unreasonable use of coastal land has been a major issue and became a threat to ecological security in China. This paper analyzed the coastal land expansion and utilization process from 1980 to 2015 in Shanghai through remote sensing image processing and field investigations. The process of land reclamation in Shanghai and the effect of land use transformation on natural wetlands and the quality of the natural habitat are explored by analyzing land use and land cover change and modeling ecosystem services change by Integrated valuation of ecosystem services and tradeoffs (InVEST) model. The results show that the urban ‘ocean sprawl’ in Shanghai has increased by ∼10 % from 1980 to 2015 which transformed natural wetlands into construction land significantly. Despite strict control over the quality of reclamation projects and appropriate compensation with artificial wetlands, the natural habitat damage caused by reclamation increases exponentially in the past few decades. Recently the policies have changed from encouraging human reclamation to prohibit all kinds of land reclamation programs from national to local scales. It has major policy implications for future coastal habitat conservation. This paper gives an overview of the land reclamation in Shanghai and its impact on natural habitat that can foster the related policies to promote healthier and more reasonable urbanization during the economic transformation.     

How to visualise the invisible: Revealing re-use of rural buildings by non-agricultural entrepreneurs in the region of Roeselare-Tielt (Belgium)

Peri-urban rural areas are undergoing profound change in many regions, including the northern region of Belgium, Flanders. One driving force is the gradual conversion from an agriculturally based economy to a much more diverse economic base. Re-use of rural buildings by nonagricultural entrepreneurs is a part of this economic diversification. This re-use is changing not only the rural economy but also the social structure and spatial and environmental quality. However, re-use of rural buildings is chronically and severely underestimated. In most cases these activities are prohibited by spatial legislation, which results in their exclusion from census data. Standard methods based on measuring land use change do not measure this transformation either, as these new activities do not necessarily lead to a change in land use.This paper presents a survey method for describing and quantifying this hidden re-use of rural buildings by non-agricultural entrepreneurs. Several datasets were combined in a GIS environment. This led to an inventory which was further refined by confirming the knowledge of local civil officers and local authorities. Field visits provided final confirmation of the data. A case study using this survey method gave profound quantitative insights in the re-use dynamic for the region of Roeselare-Tielt in the north western part of Belgium. In the rural areas of this region, 1015 addresses were detected housing a non-agricultural activity. Further information was gained about the type and the age of the detected activity and the type of building in which these activities are taking place. The most common activities are (building) contractors, trade or commercial companies, landscapers, transport and woodworking companies. Furthermore, 35% of all detected enterprises are located in (former) farm buildings.These results then formed the starting point for individual interviews and focus group discussions on the current policy on this non-agricultural dynamic. Studying the re-use dynamic in the rural areas of the north western part of Belgium (Flanders), provides further knowledge on the economic diversification of rural areas under high urbanisation pressure. The results also illustrate that the current policy lacks both data and efficiency. A clear discrepancy was found between the legal rules, spatial reality and the policy attitude towards the reported illegal non-agricultural economic dynamic. We call for increased awareness of the non-agricultural re-use of rural buildings, given the effect on future spatial planning.     

The calculative turn in land value capture: Lessons from the English planning system

For over three decades, negotiated planning obligations have been the primary form of land value capture in England. Diffusing and evolving over the last decade, a significant policy innovation has been the use of financial calculations to estimate the extent to which policies on planning obligations for actual, proposed development projects and in plan making affect the financial viability of development. This paper assesses the extent to which the use of financial appraisals has provided a robust, just and practical procedure to support land value capture. It is concluded that development viability appraisals are saturated with intrinsic uncertainty and that land value capture that is based on such calculations is, to some extent, capricious. In addition, clear incentives for developers and land owners to bias viability calculations, the economic dependence of many viability consultants on developers and land owners, a lack of transparency, contested or ambiguous guidance and the opportunities created by input uncertainty for bias are further failings. It is argued that how viability calculations are applied has been, is being and will continue to be shaped by power relations.     

湖南省土地多功能耦合协调度时空分异

研究目的:测度和分析湖南省土地"三生"功能之间的耦合协调时空特征,为提升土地整体利用效益提供参考。研究方法:综合指数模型、耦合协调度模型。研究结果:(1)2005—2015年,湖南省土地生态功能值高于生活和生产功能,土地生产、生活功能强度提高且呈现非均衡性特征,生态功能值小幅降低,但空间格局变化不明显;(2)2005年、2010年、2015年三期土地功能耦合协调度的均值分别为0.486、0.581和0.620,表明近10年来湖南省土地利用冲突趋于减弱。土地功能耦合协调度空间分布上形成以长株潭3+5城市群为高值区的中心—外围结构,不同主体功能区耦合协调度分值由高到低的顺序依次为:农产品主产区重点开发区重点生态功能区;(3)影响土地功能耦合协调的因素包括宏观政策、经济发展和自然资源禀赋等。研究结论:应根据土地多功能的时空耦合特征和影响因素,制定差异化的调控策略以提升土地"三生"功能。     

基于全排列多边形图示指标法的西宁市土地集约利用评价

研究目的:利用具有问题诊断、现状分析、模式评价和政策指导的评价方法分析西宁市土地集约利用变化特征。研究方法:采用全排列多边形图示指标法对西宁市西部开发以来城乡建设用地集约利用变化进行量化评价。研究结果:(1)全排列多边形图示指标法可用于土地集约利用的评价,其优势在于从机理上考虑了评价对象具有多因素和系统性的整合性,指标值计算减少了主观因素的影响,且评价结果数图结合;(2)单项指标显示,西宁市城乡建设用地扩张及集约利用水平提高的主要驱动力是经济增长因素,即属于经济驱动型;城乡建设用地扩张主要表现在城镇规模的增长,农村居民点规模变化不大;(3)西宁市土地集约利用综合指数总体呈增长态势,且前阶段的增长速度慢于后阶段,经济增长方式发生改变。研究结论:西宁市在未来一段时间应通过增强新增建设用地的投资强度和产出绩效,不断提高土地集约利用水平;在土地资源供应缺乏、城市空间扩张受阻的情况下,积极开展城乡增减挂钩土地综合整治,优化城乡建设用地结构,提高土地集约利用水平。     

Upzoning and value capture: How U.S. local governments use land use regulation power to create and capture value from real estate developments

The public sector can harness its authority to control land uses to secure valuable public benefits from real estate developments. This paper investigates how five major U.S. cities—Boston, Chicago, New York, San Francisco, and Seattle—are using their land use regulation powers to create and capture value for the public benefit. An analysis of the zoning and entitlement processes of the 20 largest real estate development projects in each city reveals that value has been captured from all 100 projects. Furthermore, these cities implicitly differentiated value capture into two distinct components: value creation and value capture. Among the 100 projects, cities created value for 90 projects by allowing greater density and height—a practice often referred to as “upzoning.” Distinguishing such upzoning incidences from traditional land use exaction tools is important because the added value gives local governments greater legitimacy in asking for public benefits. The experience of the five cities further revealed that value capture strategies can be customized to adapt to unique regulatory, political, and cultural contexts. Lastly, despite the fact that the majority of the upzoned projects increased density and height through project-specific negotiations, none of the cities had clear standards or evaluation frameworks for determining: how much value was created, what can be asked for in return, and who should benefit from the value captured. Cross-national scholarship on value capture can be leveraged to address these important questions.     

Can process-based modelling and economic valuation of ecosystem services inform land management policy at a catchment scale?

Land produces a range of benefits, from ecosystem services, but markets only incentivise the production of a small proportion of them. The Ecosystem Approach develops plans for moving towards a more optimal mix. This requires stakeholders to understand the value of ecosystem services and how these values change with land-use and management. We investigate whether process-based modelling and economic valuation can help stakeholders to do this. We do this by applying these tools to a plan to improve ecosystem services delivery in a catchment. To be used in decision-support, analytical approaches need to be relatively inexpensive and rapid, and our analysis was deliberately constrained in this way. Two 25-year future scenarios were developed and compared against a baseline scenario. The first Designated Site scenario was based on enhancing the condition of nationally important nature conservation sites. The second, Ecosystem Services scenario, represented implementing the ecosystem services delivery plan. We modelled the change between the scenarios with an internationally recognised process based ecosystem services toolkit (the Land Use Capability Indicator, LUCI tool) and used the model outputs to inform economic valuation methods. Our selection of which ecosystem services to model and value were initially identified through a participatory approach. However those we could quantify was limited by evidence and data availability. We assessed changes in water quality (phosphorus load), sediment generation, carbon storage and flood regulation. We were able to put economic values on only carbon sequestration and flood regulation. Both the modelling results and the experience of applying the linked modelling-valuation approach are examined in the discussion to consider the limitations to the current usefulness of linking process based modelling to economic valuation for informing land management policy. We explore the origin and nature of these limitations and the key bottlenecks that need to be overcome, applicable to its use in other sites, regions and countries. This includes the availability of suitable coefficients and/or underlying data/evidence to parameterise the model, and the compatibility of model outputs with available economic valuation evidence (for value transfer).     

系统动力学模型在土地资源研究中的应用——以大庆市地区为例

系统动力学最大的特点是能够处理高阶次、非线性、多重反馈、复杂时变的系统问题,而土地利用是一个非线性的动态过程,这其中涉及到很多经济社会的、环境生态的因素相互作用。大庆市由于几十年来石油工业的发展导致了土地资源的减少和生态环境的退化;针对上述情况应用系统动力学模型根据该地区的土地演变数据和经济发展影响土地变化的数据作为主导驱动力来研究该地区土地利用变化情况,反映出当地经济发展与土地变化之间的因果关系,提出大庆地区的土地利用中存在的问题以及解决的方法,为大庆市土地资源可持续发展提供科学的理论支持。     

基于价值链视角的高技术产业用地效率变化研究 ——以浙江省为例

研究目的：从价值链视角分析高技术产业用地效率时空变化特征,为提升高技术产业用地效率、促进产业转型升级及推动经济高质量发展提供理论依据。研究方法：DEA-Malmquist指数模型法。研究结果：（1）从价值链整体来看,2014—2016年浙江省整体高技术产业用地效率呈现增长的趋势,且全要素生产率改善上升了9.8%。（2）从价值链分阶段来看,若调整投入要素数量及结构,浙江省高技术产业用地可节约679.78 hm2,约占全省高技术产业用地面积的5.56%。在产出阶段,全省中间成果产出向最终成果产出的转化效率较低。（3）从价值链的时空变化来看：在时间变化上,2014—2016年整体用地效率呈先升后降状态;在空间布局上,2014—2015年呈西北向东南递减的趋势,2015—2016年表现为南北高、中间低的态势。研究结论：总体用地效率提高主要得益于技术进步和规模效率变化,成果转化率不高关键在于技术效率偏低,而提升整个产业链的用地效率主要是如何降低土地要素投入冗余,因此,针对价值链全阶段,提出调整初始投入的规模和结构、加快中间成果的技术转化率、优化最终成果的时空布局等建议。