Impact of Openness on Growth in Different Country Groups

This paper evaluates the impact of openness on growth in different country groups using a panel of 79 countries over the period 1970–98. It distinguishes itself from many existing studies in three aspects: Firstly, both trade and FDI are included as measures of openness. Secondly, countries are classified into high‐, middle‐ and low‐income groups to compare the roles of trade and FDI in these groups. Thirdly, the possible problems of endogeneity and multicollinearity of trade and FDI are carefully dealt with in a panel data setting. The main findings are as follows. Total trade has a general positive impact on growth in all country groups, although the impact from imports is not significant in high‐income countries. FDI has a positive impact on growth in high‐ and middle‐income countries, but not in low‐income countries. With the existing absorptive capabilities, low‐income countries can benefit from both exports and imports, but not from FDI. These findings suggest that trade and FDI affect growth through different channels and under different conditions. The paper also discusses important policy implications.     

FDI,openness and income

This is an empirical study of the impact of foreign direct investment (FDI) on income. It presents cross-country evidence that inward FDI is positively correlated with income. In addition, an instrument for FDI is constructed to address the issue of endogeneity. The results show that instrumental-variables (IV) estimates of the impact of FDI on income are positive and greater than OLS estimates, similar to the findings on trade in Frankel and Romer (). The evidence in this paper suggests that inward FDI contributes to higher income, and favours the argument of Irwin and Terviö () that trade openness is subject to measurement error – in particular, trade is an imperfect proxy for many income-enhancing interactions between countries.     

Intellectual Property Rights,FDI, R&D and Economic Growth: A Cross‐country Empirical Analysis

This paper aims to empirically examine how intellectual property rights (IPRs) protection, foreign direct investment (FDI) and research and development (R&D), along with other possible variables, may affect the economic growth of the host country. Using the panel data of 92 countries during 1970–2007, I conclude from the system generalised method of moments estimation that domestic investment share, FDI, R&D capacity, openness to trade, human capital and IPRs protection all have statistically significant and positive impacts on economic growth. A further investigation of countries at different levels of development suggests two striking findings. First, besides the domestic investment, openness, human capital and IPRs protection, R&D is the key to drive economic growth in the higher‐income countries, while FDI is the engine of growth in both higher‐income and middle‐income countries. Second, a positive and significant impact of IPRs protection on economic growth is found in both higher‐income and lower‐income countries. However, such an impact is not detected in the middle‐income countries.     

外商直接投资对我国地区收入差距的影响分析

本文利用1987²010年间的省际面板数据,在人力资本、产业结构、固定资产投资、对外贸易等控制变量的基础上,检验了外商直接投资(FDI)对地区间收入差距和城乡间收入差距的影响。实证结果显示:FDI对地区间收入差距一直表现为正的效应,且FDI与地区间收入差距不存在倒U形关系;然而,FDI与城乡间收入差距存在倒U形关系,即FDI的进入先是加剧了城乡间收入差距,但随着时间推移,FDI却对城乡间收入差距起弥合作用。     

贸易收入余额对中美贸易的影响

随着经济全球化的加深,越来越多的跨国公司通过对外直接投资向海外销售产品和服务的方式来获取收益。传统的贸易余额没有包含对外直接投资收入。本文指出与传统的贸易余额相比,加入对外直接投资净收入的贸易收入余额更能反映当今一国的对外贸易状况及国家间的经济利益,用贸易收入余额衡量的美国贸易逆差和中国贸易顺差将大幅减少,中美贸易收入逆差将使中美贸易逆差小幅下降。     

The Impact of Bilateral Free Trade Agreements on Bilateral Foreign Direct Investment among Developed Countries

Previous studies find that a trade treaty positively impacts foreign direct investment (FDI). But does a trade treaty always have positive effects on FDI? What is the effect of bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) on bilateral FDI among developed countries? Based on the Knowledge‐Capital model, I hypothesize that bilateral FTA has negative effects on bilateral FDI in developed–developed country pairs, but positive effects in developed–developing country pairs. To test this hypothesis empirically, I conduct the within estimator, the Difference‐in‐Difference estimator and the Arellano–Bond estimator with panel data of bilateral FTA and outward FDI in 30 OECD countries and 32 non‐OECD countries between 1982 and 2005. The result supports the hypothesis. The existence of bilateral FTA decreases bilateral FDI in the OECD–OECD country pairs but increases bilateral outward FDI in the OECD–non‐OECD country pairs. The finding of negative effects of bilateral FTA on FDI is robust to different country classifications by gross national income (GNI) per capita and secondary school enrolment. Hence, the results are consistent with what Carr et al. (2001) predicts about the effects of trade cost on FDI in developed–developed country pairs and in developed–developing country pairs.     

贸易投资一体化背景下FDI对美中贸易逆差的影响:理论分析与实证检验

本文从贸易投资一体化的角度,通过关于"中美贸易不平衡问题产生的原因"的理论分析和"美国在华直接投资的贸易效应"的格兰杰因果检验,探讨了FDI对美中贸易逆差的影响。研究指出,中美贸易不平衡问题产生的原因是多方面的:贸易投资一体化条件下国际分工的利益分配、美国等发达国家跨国公司在华投资的规模、结构及其产生的贸易效应等都是形成美中贸易逆差的重要原因,而统计误差则放大了中美之间的贸易失衡。在实证检验中,本文采取对全样本(1985-2007)和子样本(2003:1-2008:1)分别进行回归并加以比较的分析方法,找出了结构突变的原因。实证检验的结果和理论分析的结果是一致的:美国在华直接投资与中国对美国出口之间存在双向的因果关系,即相互影响。     

我国的外贸顺差、外国直接投资与货币化率:1988-2004

本文首先建立了外贸顺差和FDI影响货币供应,进而影响货币化率的理论模型。模型表明:外贸顺差、FDI、存款准备金率和现金存款比率是影响货币化率的主要因素。同时,运用1988-2004年中国的外贸顺差、FDI和货币化率等有关数据进行了回归分析、协整检验和格兰杰因果检验。实证检验结果与理论模型的结论高度一致。基本结论是:1988-2004年间,外贸顺差、FDI的大幅增加是我国货币化率大幅上升的最主要的原因;法定存款准备金率与货币化率呈显著的负相关关系;CM1与货币化率呈负相关关系。     

Taxation of Foreign Profits with Heterogeneous Multinational Firms

This paper analyses optimal taxation of foreign profits using a model with heterogeneous multinational firms that serve a foreign market through exports or foreign direct investment (FDI). If a firm switches from exporting to FDI, domestic activity and tax payments may decrease, stay constant or even rise because of intra‐firm trade. It turns out that, in contrast to recent claims, in all three cases, the optimal tax system implies full taxation after deduction of foreign tax payments. If the country accounts for the effects of its policy on the foreign price level, the case for taxing foreign income becomes even stronger. However, the globally optimal tax system may require exemption of foreign income from tax.     

The Trade‐Off between Foreign Direct Investments and Exports: The Role of Multiple Dimensions of Distance

To serve foreign markets, firms can either export or set up a local subsidiary through horizontal foreign direct investment (FDI). The conventional proximity–concentration theory suggests that FDI substitutes for trade if distance between countries is large, while exports become more important if scale economies in production are large. This paper investigates empirically the effect of different dimensions of distance on the choice between exports and FDI. We find that different dimensions of distance affect exports and FDI differently. There is clear evidence of a proximity–concentration trade‐off in geographical terms: the share of FDI sales in total foreign sales increases with geographical distance. The positive relation between import tariffs and FDI intensity provides further evidence for a trade‐off resulting from trade costs. On the other hand, the share of FDI decreases with language differences and cultural and institutional barriers. The latter dimensions of distance thus affect FDI more strongly than exports.     

Host market characteristics,FDI, and the FDI – trade relationship

This paper empirically examines how a host nation's market characteristics, particularly its market maturity and role as an export platform, affect the amount of inward FDI it receives and its FDI?–?bilateral trade relationship with the FDI source. For the period 1989?–?1999, using Japanese outward FDI into 85 geographically and developmentally diverse countries, we find a positive and significant relationship between FDI inflows and the host's market maturity levels. However, the FDI?–?trade interaction between the host and the FDI source appears to vary inversely with the host country's market maturity level. In addition, after controlling for the host's market maturity, we find that the nature of the host's ‘export platform’ status also significantly impacts both inward FDI flows and the FDI?–?trade relationship.     

中国—欧盟贸易条件研究

在中欧经贸关系高速发展的背景下,对中国-欧盟贸易条件的研究相对缺乏。本文运用较详尽的贸易数据计算得出中国-欧盟双边商品贸易的贸易条件,得出1992-2003年间中国-欧盟价格贸易条件恶化但收入贸易条件改善的结论。并通过进一步实证分析,得出其影响因素为:中国经济增长、欧盟经济增长、中国对欧盟出口商品结构和在华的外商投资。     

On Determinants of Japan's Foreign Direct Investment in Eastern Europe

Summary

The paper takes issue with some untested but often repeated assertions that Japanese FDI positions in Eastern Europe are weak. Japan's economic relations with Eastern Europe, including FDI, should be understood in the context of Japan's global economic relations. Therefore, it might not be appropriate to approach the question armed with absolute FDI numbers only. So, the author proceeds to empirically test some of these assertions by calculating directional trade ratios and directional FDI ratios! As a result of his approach, he claims that Japan's FDI position in Poland is not significantly weaker compared to its trade position or to other advanced countries' positions. The paper also suggests that, although Japan's FDI in Poland has been undoubtedly stagnant, the larger problem is that the Polish FDI environment is still problematic due mainly to repayment risks and rather low levels of real per capita income.     

Modes of Foreign Direct Investment and Patterns of Trade: An Alternative Empirical Approach

Modes of FDI can be clarified by analysing the changing patterns of trade among host, home and third countries. However, most empirical experiments of foreign direct investment (FDI) determinants have been confined to general characteristics of host countries and multinational enterprises' outward investment activities. This may not clearly characterise the specific characteristics of inward FDI in regard to the host country. Thus, we introduce an alternative approach to clarify modes of FDI by investigating the link between patterns of trade and inward FDI. To empirically test whether our approach is applicable, we choose China during the period 1998–2007. We construct a modified gravity equation of bilateral trade while considering spatially lagged interdependence between host, home and third countries. The problem of endogeneity is controlled by applying the system generalised method of moments (GMM) estimation technique. Our findings are consistent with results in existing studies on modes of outward FDI to China and prove that our approach in dealing with the link between patterns of trade and inward FDI has wide applicability to all modes of FDI. We discover there is strong evidence for statistically significant complementarity between bilateral trade and inward FDI within the aggregate trade data. As we decompose the aggregate trade data into final and intermediate goods, we find the motivation concerning export‐platform and complex vertical FDI is very significant. In addition, as we separate the bilateral partners into developing partners and developed partners, we find both bilateral and multilateral linkages are much stronger with developing partners.     

我国工业制成品贸易条件的影响因素分析

本文运用1981-2006年的数据,对我国工业制成品的价格贸易条件、收入贸易条件和单要素贸易条件的影响因素进行了实证分析。结果表明:技术进步与我国工业制成品的价格贸易条件和收入贸易条件呈显著正相关关系,人均资本存量与收入贸易条件呈显著负相关关系,资本技术密集型产品出口占工业制成品出口的比例与价格贸易条件呈显著正相关关系;经济增长与收入贸易条件、单要素贸易条件呈显著正相关关系,累积外国直接投资占国内资本存量的比例与价格贸易条件和收入贸易条件呈显著负相关关系;以直接标价法表示的实际汇率变动与三种贸易条件均呈显著负相关关系。本文在此基础上提出了相关的政策建议。     

外商投资、市场分割与收入差距——基于我国省级面板数据的经验研究

文章基于我国1995-2010年省级面板数据,对外商投资、市场分割与收入差距之间的关系进行了实证检验。结果表明：首先,近年来我国各地区基尼系数均有所增加,收入差距显著扩大;其次,外商直接投资（FDI）通过技术溢出效应、就业结构效应、经济增长效应和国际贸易效应来影响东道国收入差距,FDI的收入分配效应呈先升后降的倒U型,并存在区域差异;再次,地方政府对各产业的保护程度不同,因而市场分割因素将对收入分配产生影响,其收入分配效应同样存在区域差异。同时市场分割通过限制劳动力、资本和商品的流动以及技术溢出,抑制FDI的收入分配效应。     

外国直接投资、加工贸易利益分配:U形价值链模型

文章指出,价值链各环节利益与市场结构和竞争力有关,一个国家在特定行业竞争力越大,就越能占据具有垄断优势的战略环节,提供价值链上越多的价值增加量。文章将企业价值链活动分为上游、中游、下游三个环节,并假定委托方为发达国家的跨国公司,代理人为发展中国家的加工企业,装配加工企业的产品通过加工贸易方式全部出口,加工贸易委托方决策服从收益最大化或成本最小化原则,从而建立了加工贸易U形价值链模型。分析表明,加工贸易利益的分配轨迹呈U形曲线,且会随着代理方数量的增加变得越来越陡峭,使代理方净贸易条件趋于恶化;跨国公司运用转移价格手段使U形曲线变得更加陡峭,代理方利益受损。这正是我国在国际分工中处于U形曲线底端的原因,我国贸易条件的变化与外国直接投资流入以及加工贸易发展有较大关系,单纯依靠数量扩张来改善收入贸易条件的空间越来越小,我国应把利用外资的主要目标放在外资的技术含量和产业结构调整上,应对成本动机的外国直接投资予以高度关注并给以必要的政策引导。     

论内向型FDI与国际贸易的关系——中国作为东道国的面板数据分析

本文运用固定影响变截距模型,采用1992-2004年我国作为东道国,香港特区、韩国、日本、美国、我国台湾地区、新加坡和德国等七个对中国直接投资最多的国家或地区的面板数据,对我国内向型FDI与国际贸易的关系进行了实证研究。研究结果表明,我国的内向型FDI与国际贸易之间具有显著的互补性,而且内向型FDI对我国的出口具有正的滞后效应。     

基于VAR模型的中国出口导向经济增长假说检验

由于数据结构、计量方法和变量选择的不同,有关ELG(出口导向型增长)假说的研究得出了不同的结论。系统分析FDI、出口贸易和经济增长的关系,将FDI纳入VAR模型中检验ELG假说,结果发现:中国是出口导向型经济增长,每增长1%的出口贸易开放度引发长期经济增长0.83%,出口贸易开放度是影响中国经济增长波动的主要因素,它对经济增长具有递增的促进作用;FDI具有持续提高中国出口贸易度的效应,从而促进中国的长期经济增长,FDI是引发中国出口贸易度提高和经济增长的Granger原因。     

Foreign direct investment and customs union: Incentives for multilateral tariff cooperation over free trade

The present article examines the implications of a customs union (CU) on the pattern of tariffs, welfare and the prospects for free trade when the non-member firm has an incentive to engage in foreign direct investment (FDI). First, I show that upon the formation of a bilateral CU, the non-member firm has greater incentives to engage in FDI. However, when FDI becomes a feasible entry option for the non- member firm under a CU, member countries have incentives to strategically induce export over FDI by lowering their joint external tariff. When fixed set-up cost of FDI is sufficiently low, this tariff falls below Kemp–Wan tariff and CU leads to a Pareto improvement relative to no agreement. Moreover, using an infinite repetition of the one-shot tariff game under a CU, I show that the presence of FDI incentive of the non-member firm makes the member countries more willing to cooperate multilaterally over free trade while the opposite is true for the non-member country. Finally, I find that, unless fixed cost of having an additional plant is sufficiently low, multilateral cooperation over free trade is easier to sustain when FDI incentive is present.