Heterogeneity in sales districts: Beyond individual-level predictors of satisfaction and performance

This article examines the influence of heterogeneity within a sales unit on the unit’s satisfaction and performance.Sales unit refers to a set of salespersons working out of the same office and for the same supervisor, andheterogenity refers to salespersons’ dispersion or variance on key dimensions. Specifically, drawing on theories in social psychology, the authors study the influence of sales unit heterogeneity in terms of (1) demographic characteristics (e.g., gender dispersion), (2) skills and rewards (e.g., reward dispersion), and (3) goal orientations (e.g., learning orientation dispersion) on a sales unit’s performance and job satisfaction levels. The hypotheses developed are tested using data from a study involving 476 salespeople belonging to 105 sales units in a large organization. The authors find that the focal heterogeneity variables account for nearly 25 percent of the total variance explained by the full set of independent variables included in the model. R. Venkatesh is an assistant professor of business administration at the University of Pittsburgh’s Katz Graduate School of Business. His articles on product bundling, cobranding and sales force management have appeared or are forthcoming in theInternational Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Business, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, andMarketing Science. Goutam Challagalla is an associate marketing professor at Georgia Tech. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Texas at Austin, where he won the Outstanding Dissertation Award. He has published articles on sales management and marketing theory in marketing and psychology journals. Ajay K. Kohli is Isaac Stiles Hopkins professor of marketing at Emory University’s Goizueta Business School. During 2000–2001, he is on leave from Emory and working at the Monitor Company. He has published in several journals on market orientation, sales management, and organizational buying behavior.     

Managing rewards to enhance relational worth

In this study, cognitive evaluation theory illustrates how the controlling aspects of reward redemption policy (stringent versus flexible) interact with the type of offered reward (social versus economic) to influence relational program effectiveness. We look at effectiveness by defining and measuring relational worth, the non-financial value of consumers to organizations. The hypotheses are empirically tested with a sample of season ticket holders of a professional sports team (n = 373) and then replicated in a second study with experimental data using scenarios in a hotel reward program context. Results indicate that perceived social rewards lead to affective commitment, while perceived economic rewards lead to continuance commitment. Involvement is a significant determinant in how reward type and policy influence commitment types; specifically, low-involvement consumers are more influenced by reward program signals than high-involvement consumers. Affective commitment produces the most relationally valuable consumer to an organization in terms of relational worth. Controlling policies have an undermining effect on all commitment types, regardless of reward type.     

Salespeople’s use of upward influence tactics (UITs) in coping with role stress

Researchers’ attentions have recently focused on how salespeople cope with role stress. This study focuses on salespersons’ use of six upward influence tactics (UITs) with the immediate sales manager, and how salespeople use UITs to lessen the impact of two role stressors (perceived role conflict and role ambiguity) associated with the sales job. The study also evaluates the potential moderating role of UITs on relationships between role stress and manager satisfaction and propensity to leave. Analysis of data gathered from a heterogeneous sample revealed differences in use of UITs between salespeople classified as either high or low in role stress. Salespeople who perceive high role conflict employ assertiveness and upward appeal UITs more frequently. Salespeople who perceive high role ambiguity use exchange and coalition-building UITs more frequently. Results also suggest that salespersons’ use of assertiveness and ingratiation UITs exacerbate relationships between perceived role ambiguity and two outcomes: satisfaction with supervisor and propensity to leave. Implications of the study findings for sales managers are reviewed, as are implications for further research. His research interests are in the areas of personal selling and sales management. His work has appeared inJournal of Education for Business, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, and various national and international conference proceedings. Jeffrey K. Sager, Ph. D., conducts research in the areas of salesperson turnover and job stress. His work has appeared in theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, andJournal of Business Research. His research interests are in the fields of strategic management and organizational behavior. His research has been published in theAcademy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, and several other journals.     

Service firms and customer loyalty programs: a regulatory fit perspective of reward preferences in a health club setting

In this paper, we examine the impact of various configurations of regulatory fit on the attitudes, exercise intentions and actual behavior of members of a health club loyalty program. Regulatory fit is conceptualized as both the match between types of program rewards and how they are communicated, as well as the congruence between reward types and regulatory focus as a stable, individual disposition. In two experimental designs, non-point reward programs offering a short-term cash bonus were used. The results of Study 1 suggest that regulatory fit has a positive impact on perceived value, exercise intentions and exercise intensity, but not on visit frequency. Analysis of repeated behavioral measures further reveals that regulatory fit has a stronger impact on exercise intensity over time relative to nonfit. Study 2 also confirms the predictive power of regulatory fit over nonfit when conceptualized as the match between reward type and trait regulatory focus.     

Performance congruence and value congruence impact on sales force annual sales

The separate and joint impact of performance congruence (similarity between salespeople and their sales managers) and value congruence on annual sales are investigated in a field study. Two hundred thirty-nine salespeople and their sales managers from several industries participated in the study. A significant association was found for separate and joint associations between performance congruence and value congruence and annual sales. More specifically, the more similar salespeople and their sales managers are regarding performance congruence measures, “identifying new prospects” and “setting up an initial appointment” and personal values, “warm relationships with others,” and “sense of belonging,” the higher annual sales.     

Employees as internal audience: how advertising affects employees’ customer focus

Ad campaigns target consumers with information about the company, its products, and sometimes its employees. Ads also reach the organization’s employees and may contain information useful to employees in meeting customer needs. Results from a study involving a high-tech firm indicate that when employees believe ads are effective and value congruent, their customer focus increases. Pride completely mediates the effects of value congruence and effectiveness on customer focus. Organizational identification of employees generally results in a more favorable reaction to ads. A second study involving a regional health facility replicates and extends these findings to include employee portrayal accuracy when employees are featured in ads. Employee portrayal accuracy affects promise accuracy, effectiveness and value-congruence. In addition, employee portrayal accuracy has a direct effect on customer focus.     

Effects of loyalty programs on value perception,program loyalty,and brand loyalty

The authors investigate how reward schemes of a loyalty program influence perceived value of the program and how value perception of the loyalty program affects customer loyalty. The results show that involvement moderates the effects of loyalty programs on customer loyalty. In high-involvement situations, direct rewards are preferable to indirect rewards. In low-involvement situations, immediate rewards are more effective in building a program's value than delayed rewards. Under high-involvement conditions, value perception of the loyalty program influences brand loyalty both directly and indirectly through program loyalty. Under low-involvement conditions, there is no direct effect of value perception on brand loyalty. Youjae Yi (uoujae@snu.ac.kr) (Ph.D., Stanford University, 1987) is a professor of marketing in the College of Business Administration at Seoul National University. He was at the University of Michigan as an assistant professor, Sanford Robertson Assistant Professor, and tenured associate professor. His work has appeared in theJournal of Marketing Research, theJournal of Consumer Research, theJournal of Applied Psychology, theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science, theJournal of Consumer Psychology, theJournal of Advertising, and theJournal of Econometrics. He is currently an editor of theKorean Journal of Consumer Studies and was an editor of theSeoul Journal of Business. Hoseong Jeon (jeonho1@snu.ac.kr) is a doctoral candidate in the College of Business Administration at Seoul National University. He received his M.A. in advertising from Michigan Sate University. His current research interests include customer relationship management, advertising effects on consumer attitudes, and determinants of customer loyalty.     

The influence of the amount and type of information on individuals’ perception of legal services

The study examines the impact of different amounts and types of infomation on individuals’ perception of attorneys. Utilizing the concept of perceived risk, an experiment was conducted to test various communication strategies. The results, in part, confirm the “word-of-mouth is best” strategy adhered to by many attorneys. The study also sheds light on the impact of legal service advertising on indivduals.     

Establishing human brands: determinants of placement success for first faculty positions in marketing

Based on primary data spanning 5 years, we examine factors that influence the entry-level placement of marketing doctoral candidates at U.S. universities and colleges. Contributing to the emerging research on human brands, we identify marketing doctoral candidates’ intrinsic and extrinsic brand cues that influence their number of AMA interviews, campus visit offers, and starting base salary. The strongest brand cue is the research productivity of candidates’ doctoral degree-granting departments. A related cue that also predicts initial salary is the candidates’ advisors’ research record. Further, when beginning the job search, doctoral students who have a top research publication, who have a dissertation proposal defended with data, and who have attended the AMA-Sheth Foundation Doctoral Consortium receive a substantial entry salary premium. Based on branding frameworks and theories of academic rewards, this study adds to the emerging knowledge on both the concept of human brands as well as the growing literature on issues relating to marketing academia.     

Receiver responses to rewarded referrals: the motive inferences framework

Referral reward programs have been shown in past research to stimulate referrals and also to contribute positively to customer lifetime value and firms’ profitability. In this paper we examine whether, how, and under what conditions providing a reward for a referral affects receivers’ responses to the referral. Based on a multiple motives inference framework, we propose that rewards adversely affect responses because they lead receiving consumers to infer ulterior motives for the referral. Using experiments and a survey, we find support for this hypothesis and show that this effect is stronger for unsolicited and weak tie referrals. We also demonstrate that rewarding both the referral provider and receiver or providing symbolic rewards can eliminate the negative effect of rewarded referrals. The paper makes conceptual contributions to the literature on referral reward programs, word-of-mouth, and motive inferences. The work has implications for managers considering ways to construct referral programs and design marketing activities to increase referrals.     

Antecedents and consequences of adaptive selling confidence and behavior: a dyadic analysis of salespeople and their customers

Personal selling is thought to be a very effective marketing vehicle. The notion of adaptive selling suggests that it should work better than any other means of communication because salespeople are able to develop a unique message for each customer. This research proposes a model of key antecedents and consequences of adaptive selling. In particular, we distinguish, measure, and model the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of adaptive selling, something that is encouraged but not thoroughly examined in the literature. Hypotheses are tested using data from 210 salesperson-customer dyads. The results indicate that a salesperson’s perception of the firm’s customer orientation has an effect on adaptive selling behavior through the salesperson’s adaptive selling confidence, role ambiguity, intrinsic motivation and customer-qualification skills. Adaptive selling behavior increases salesperson’s outcome performance, customers’ evaluations of satisfaction with the product and with the salesperson, which enhance customers’ anticipation of future interactions with the salesperson. The implications for management and theory are discussed.     

Marketing academicians’ perceptions of ethical research and publishing behavior

Many universities have increased the emphasis on faculty research and publication productivity as a means of enhancing their reputation. Such emphasis contributes to the increased competition for available journal space, heightened pressures on the efficiency of the editorial system, and increases the temptation to lower ethical research and publication standards. A survey of 328 marketing academicians about their perceptions of ethical and unethical research and publication practices for academicians, editors, and review board members revealed wide variation among respondents’ perceptions of what constitutes ethical academic conduct. In particular, the respondent’s level of publication experience was found to be significantly related to his/her assessment of the ethicality of research practices. The authors suggest that a recognized code of ethics for the marketing academic community would be valuable in maintaining professional standards, increase justice in the academic reward system, and further the growth of knowledge in our discipline.     

Influence of buyer ethics and salesperson behavior on intention to choose a supplier

A survey of purchasing professionals was conducted to investigate the effect of perceived unethical salesperson behavior on intentions to choose a supplier. Results suggest that as salesperson behavior is perceived as more unethical, the purchaser is less likely to choose the firm that the salesperson represents. This result is due to norm violations influencing intentions in two ways: (1) through externally controlled rewards or punishments (e.g., harming the purchaser’s career), and (2) through internally self-bestowed rewards or punishments (e.g., feeling bad for not doing the “right” thing).     

A confirmatory investigation of industrial buyer image of the Saleswoman

An intervening variable between ability and sales performance is the receptivity of professional purchasing agents. In this article we examine the extent to which purchasing agents’ perceptions of female sales representatives constitute a barrier to the latter’s sales performance and effectiveness. The present investigation replicates the work of Swan et al. (1984) with two substantive improvements; (1) it is based on a sample representative of purchasing agents throughout the United States, and (2) the study introduces importance ratings for each of the attributes thought to contribute to buyer preference for a salesperson. In addition to replication, the present investigation allows for comparison of changes in purchasing agent’s perception of differences between male and female industrial salespersons during the decade of the 1980s. Results support the earlier study in finding no overt evidence of negative stereotyping of female sales representatives. Directions for future research are also discussed.     

An empirical analysis of spokesperson characteristics on advertisement and product evaluations

This article reports the results of an experimental investigation of the influence of a communicator’s characteristics on respondent’s evaluation of an advertisement when the communicator is in the role of a spokesperson. Specifically, the author assesses the impact of the physical attractiveness, sex and race of a spokesperson, the sex of the respondent and product advertised on respondent’s attitude toward the advertisement, and respondent’s perceptions of the advertised product. The results presented indicate that the effectiveness of the factors mentioned are dependent on the specific objective of the communication. A main effect of physical attractiveness was noted on a subject’s attitude toward the advertisement, on perceptions of product quality and intent to purchase. The sex of the communicator impacted on a subject's perception of product quality and interacted with the race of the communicator to effect the intent to purchase variable. Race was shown to effect the subject’s perception of product quality. A main effect of the sex of the subject was noted for the cognition variable.     

Bundle evaluation in different market segments: The effects of discount framing and buyers’ preference heterogeneity

Heterogeneity of buyers’ preferences has played a significant role in the earlier economic analyses of bundling and continues to be important in the recent investigations initiated by marketing and consumer researchers. Guided by a decision-framing conceptualization, this study suggests that in a market characterized by heterogeneous preferences for items included in a bundle offer, buyers’ bundle evaluations may vary significantly depending on which item is featured as the price leader (i.e., the discounted item). When two unequally preferred items were evaluated for purchase as a set, bundle evaluation was more enhanced when the price leader was also the more preferred item. Thus, under such preference conditions, bundle evaluation may be quite sensitive to the choice of the price leader. Besides highlighting the importance of incorporating psychological considerations in bundling research, the results of this study also raise questions about the validity of a key assumption made in the extant analyses of bundling strategies. Specifically, perceived savings on one item may not always transfer readily to other items included in a bundle offer. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. His research interests include price perception, pricing strategy, price bundling, and decision making. His research has been published in theJournal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, andReview of Marketing. He is a member of the editorial advisory board ofPricing Strategy & Practice.     

The price of competitiveness in competitive pricing

This study examines how pricing decisions might be improved. We test the hypothesis that managers have a tendency to overcompete by comparing the performance of managers with the performance of computerized strategies in a Prisoner’s Dilemma pricing experiment. We find that the subjects in our study obtain lower profits than matched computer strategies. The subjects appear to value relative performance against competitors, even when they are explicitly instructed to maximize profits and are compensated based on profits. The implication for managers is that pricing to maximize profits may require tolerating the strong performance of competitors, even to the point of accepting a lower profit than some or all the competitors. If competitiveness means an adversarial, “zero-sum game” view of one’s competitors, then the price of competitiveness in competitive markets such as those in our experiment may be lower profits. Being less competitive may be more profitable. His major areas of research are pricing competition and channels of distribution. His research has been published inMarketing Letters andJournal of Marketing Channels. He has also cowritten a chapter on wholesaler liability for the bookWholesale Distribution Channels: New Insights and Perspectives, edited by Bert Rosenblum. where he directs Vanderbilt’s Center for Services Marketing. His 1995 article “Return on Quality (ROQ): Making Service Quality Financially Accountable” (written with Anthony Zohorik and Timothy Keiningham) won theJournal of Marketing’s Alpha Kappa Psi award for the article that had the greatest impact on the practice of marketing. He has also won best article awards from theJournal of Advertising and theJournal of Retailing. He serves on the editorial boards of seven journals, includingMarketing Science and theJournal of Marketing Research. His books includeService Marketing, Return on Quality, Advertising Media Models, Service Quality, andReadings in Service Marketing.     

The trade-off of servicing empowerment on employees’ service performance: examining the underlying motivation and workload mechanisms

Literature on empowerment as an internal marketing practice primarily documents positive effects on employees’ job performance, though increasing evidence suggests conflicting viewpoints. This study adopts an agency theoretical perspective to propose a workload mechanism, according to which the delegation of power from supervisors (principals) to service employees (agents) (i.e., servicing empowerment) is costly to employees and increases their perceived workload, which hampers their performance to serve customers. Using a laboratory experiment and a survey, this research reveals that the perceived workload and extant motivational mechanisms have conflicting effects on employees’ service performance. The former exerts a significant negative impact on tasks that involve conflicting principal-agent interests (e.g., handling customer complaints) but not on tasks with aligned principal-agent interests (e.g., organizational citizenship behaviors). Two control systems, performance appraisal (accurate and infrequent feedback) and principal-agent service goal congruence, mitigate the dysfunctional effect of perceived workload on employees’ service performance.     

Trying to prosume: toward a theory of consumers as co-creators of value

One important aspect in the service-dominant logic in marketing is the role of customers as co-creators of value. This role typically involves producing products for own consumption, i.e. what Toffler referred to as “prosumption.” This study explores the motivational mechanisms underlying people’s prosumption propensity. A theoretical framework that incorporates ideas from value research and attitude theory, specifically the “theory of trying” (Bagozzi and Warshaw in Journal of Consumer Research 17:127–140, 1990), is developed and tested in the empirical context of food prosumption. The results based on a survey of 380 households show that global values influence domain-specific values in food prosumption, and domain-specific values then affect attitudes, self-efficacy, and on-going behavior before ultimately shaping intentions to engage in prosumption in the future.     

服务技术创新与服务忠诚关系模型的创建及应用

从顾客感知的角度探讨服务技术创新的结果表现、效率、易用性、感知控制、便利性和感知风险等特点与服务忠诚的关系,研究表明：服务技术创新的结果表现、效率和易用性与服务质量正相关;便利性对服务忠诚具有直接的正向作用,感知控制与服务质量和感知价值都无显著相关;而顾客的感知风险与服务质量和服务忠诚之间存在负相关;同时也证实了服务质量和感知价值都对服务忠诚具有正向影响的观点。服务企业应积极地进行技术创新,尤其要重视能吸引消费者尝试使用并重复使用的因素,并把监控与减少消费者的风险感知作为吸引消费者使用创新性服务技术并培养其忠诚的重要工作。