Competitive nonlinear tariffs

This paper generalizes the study of nonlinear tariffs, i.e., those depending nonlinearly on the quantity purchased, to the case of a symmetric oligopoly. Competitive equilibria and the corresponding tariffs are analyzed in a Cournot framework. Various equilibria are obtained, which depend both upon the number of competing suppliers and the choice of market parameters used to characterize the competitors' strategies. Buyers are classified by type, each selecting an optimal consumption level in response to the prevailing tariff. The phenomena of buyer self-selection found in monopoly nonlinear pricing and the scaling of equilibrium demand elasticity found in Cournot models both appear in the results.     

How much does water consumption drop when each household takes charge of its own consumption? The case of the city of Seville

Making individuals take charge of their own domestic water consumption is one of the measures used to reduce the growing demand for this resource and to achieve sustainable consumption compatible with the goal of equity. The use of individual meters instead of communal meters and fixing tariffs by inhabitant rather than by household are two measures aimed at achieving these objectives. This article assesses the measures put in place in the Seville metropolitan area during the last 20 years with an unobserved component model set up in a state-space framework estimated using maximum likelihood. Water consumption elasticity to individual meters has changed from –0.307 to –1.317 with the introduction of per inhabitant tariffs, which demonstrates that there are water-saving synergies when the two measures are implemented together. The reductions in water consumption achieved with these measures are also longer lasting than the changes in consumption habits during the frequent droughts in Seville.     

Estimating Demand for Local Telephone Service with Asymmetric Information and Optional Calling Plans

In this paper, I study the theoretical and econometric implications of agents' uncertainty concerning their future consumption when a monopolist offers them either a unique, mandatory nonlinear tariff or a choice in advance from a menu of optional two–part tariffs. Agents' uncertainty is resolved through individual and privately known shocks to their types. In such a situation the principal may screen agents according to their ex ante or ex post type, by offering either a menu of optional tariffs or a standard nonlinear schedule. The theoretical implications of the model are used to evaluate a tariff experiment run by South Central Bell in two cities in Kentucky in 1986. The empirical approach explicitly accounts for the existence of informational asymmetries between local telephone users and the monopolist, leading to different, nested, econometric specifications under symmetric and asymmetric information. The empirical evidence suggests that there exists a significant asymmetry of information between consumers and the monopolist under both tariff regimes. All expected welfare components failed to increase with the introduction of optional tariffs for the estimated value of the parameters.     

Corruption,illegal trade and compliance with the Montreal Protocol

This paper studies the effects of corruption, rule of law and tariffs on illegal trade in chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Since data on illegal trade is not available, it is not possible to test any theoretical conclusions about smuggling. The paper, however, attempts to circumvent the problem by developing a model of illegal trade in CFCs that derives predictions about the effects of corruption, rule of law and tariffs on both legal and illegal imports of CFCs. Then the theoretical predictions concerning legal imports are tested using panel data on CFC consumption. Using the estimates of legal imports, inferences about illegal trade are made. The basic findings indicate that knowledge about the degree of rule of law, corruption and the level of tariffs is needed for the correct interpretation of the data on environmental performance reported to international monitoring agencies.     

Screening consumers through alternative pricing mechanisms

This paper addresses the optimal design of optional nonlinear tariffs. Two particular solutions commonly used in telecommunications and other industries are fully characterized. These optimal outlay schedules illustrate how the tariff design is altered when there exists a time lag between tariff choice and consumption. In this model, consumers' uncertainty is resolved in the interim, between the tariff choice and the usage decision, through changes in their types. The paper studies whether the monopolist may profit from screening consumers according to different information sets, and it shows that expected profits are higher under an ex-post tariff if the variance of the ex-ante type distribution is large enough. The paper also shows that no results regarding social efficiency may be obtained in general. Welfare comparison of optional tariffs will be very sensitive to type distributions, how types enter demand specifications, and the relative variance of the type components.I wish to thank John Panzar for his guidance on the present research and, for his many suggestions over several endless discussions on this paper. I also thank Kyle Bagwell, Robert Porter, and Daniel Spulber for helpful comments and suggestions. Financial support from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Spain, is gratefully acknowledged.     

Multiproduct tariffs

Necessary conditions characterizing optimal nonlinear multiproduct tariffs are derived from aggregate data about customers' responses to linear tariffs. These conditions are amenable to numerical solution with standard software by using a discrete formulation of an associated nonlinear optimization problem cast in terms of the marginal prices charged for incremental bundles. This approach avoids integrability restrictions that otherwise encumber the computations. However, this method does not ensure that customers' second-order conditions for optimality of their demands are satisfied. Some numerical examples are provided, and the extension of the method to Ramsey pricing is also demonstrated.     

政府支出与居民消费:替代或互补——基于非线性有效消费函数的实证

以非线性有效消费函数为基础,笔者构造了一个政府支出与居民消费的跨期替代模型,并利用1978年～2004年相关数据,实证研究了我国政府支出与居民消费的关系.研究结果表明,在短期内,我国政府支出与居民消费呈互补关系;但在长期内,我国政府支出与居民消费呈替代关系,即政府支出挤占居民消费支出.因此,在短期内,政府可以通过增加支出增加居民消费以提高社会总需求;但在长期经济均衡时,政府不宜采用支出政策来实现长期经济目标.     

Economic Issues Facing Electricity Supply Authorities

The slowing in the growth of electricity consumption in the early 1980s was accompanied by a significant increase in real unit costs in all Australian states. This article examines the economic issues facing government-owned electricity supply authorities under four headings: policy objectives including the question of whether the authorities should act as agencies to redistribute incomes; the estimation of future demand, especially the need to relate future demand estimates to likely changes in costs; supply aspects, including internal efficiency, cost of capital and size and reliability of generating plant; and pricing policies, particularly the need for time-of-use tariffs to improve capacity factors.     

Dynamic pricing of electricity in the mid-Atlantic region: econometric results from the Baltimore gas and electric company experiment

The Baltimore Gas and Electric Company (BGE) undertook a dynamic pricing experiment to test customer price responsiveness to different dynamic pricing options. The pilot ran during the summers of 2008 and 2009 and was called the Smart Energy Pricing (SEP) Pilot. In 2008, it tested two types of dynamic pricing tariffs: critical peak pricing (CPP) and peak time rebate (PTR) tariffs. About a thousand customers were randomly placed on these tariffs and some of them were paired with one of two enabling technologies, a device known as the Energy Orb and a switch for cycling central air conditioners. The usage of a randomly chosen control group of customers was also monitored during the same time period. In 2009, BGE repeated the pilot program with the same customers who participated in the 2008 pilot, but this time it only tested the PTR tariff. In this paper, we estimate a constant elasticity of substitution (CES) model on the SEP pilot’s hourly consumption, pricing and weather data. We derive substitution and daily price elasticities and predictive equations for estimating the magnitude of demand response under a variety of dynamic prices. We also test for the persistence of impacts across the two summers. In addition, we report average peak demand reduction for each of the treatment cells in the SEP pilot and compare the findings with those reported from earlier pilots. These results show conclusively that it is possible to incentivize customers to reduce their peak period loads using price signals. More importantly, these reductions do not wear off when the pricing plans are implemented over two consecutive summers. Our analyses reveal that SEP participants reduced their peak usages in the range of 18 to 33% in the first summer of the SEP pilot and continued these reductions in the second summer.     

Household Electricity Demand, Revisited

Recent efforts to restructure electricity markets have renewed interest in assessing how consumers respond to price changes. This paper develops a model for evaluating the effects of alternative tariff designs on electricity use. The model concurrently addresses several interrelated difficulties posed by nonlinear pricing, heterogeneity in consumer price sensitivity, and consumption aggregation over appliances and time. We estimate the model using extensive data for a representative sample of 1300 California households. The results imply a strikingly skewed distribution of household electricity price elasticities in the population, with a small fraction of households accounting for most aggregate demand response. We then estimate the aggregate and distributional consequences of recent tariff structure changes in California, the consumption effects of which have been the subject of considerable debate.     

Seasonal models of peak electric load demand

Energy consumption in a pilgrim city belonging to a Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) country exhibits strong seasonal pattern due to higher demand in summer season and additional load during the pilgrimage months. The pilgrimage month's timing is not fixed in the Gregorian calendar. The event varies according to the lunar calendar called the Hegira calendar, which lags behind the former by approximately 14 days in a year. Ten seasonal demand models are developed to model energy estimate for a GCC pilgrimage city. Among the long-range forecast models, three trigonometric models, a multiplicative model, and a multivariate model using categorical variables are considered. Further, a composite nonlinear model whose coefficients are nonlinear is suggested. This model combines the seasonality extracted from a multivariate regression model and a model that represents the peak electric load pattern. Adopting least square fit of a chi-square error function expanded by parabolic expansion, the parameters of the nonlinear model are identified. Moreover, smoothing-based techniques, such as moving average, double exponential smoothing, Winter's, and a multiplicative seasonal model, are suggested. The peak electric load model on lunar and solar calendars is closely related, and the deference in fitting error can be attributed to the magnitude of data. Computational results and statistical tests are presented to analyze the models. It is observed that the multiplicative model performs better to predict the peak electric load demand.     

Trade liberalization and the inter-industry wage premia: the missingf role of productivity

The literature concerning the effect of tariffs on the inter-industry wage premium has not addressed the role of total factor productivity (TFP) in determining both the wage premium and tariffs. This omission not only overlooks an important determinant of wage premium but also invalidates the use of the pre-reform tariff level as an instrument for the change in tariffs. Based on an analysis of Colombian data, I find that including TFP in the estimated model of the effects of tariffs on the wage premium leads to a 41% decrease in the effect of tariffs on the inter-industry wage premium relative to the model that omits TFP. More specifically, a 10 percentage point decrease in tariffs reduces the wage premium by 1.01%, whereas a 10% increase in TFP raise wage premium by 1.6%. This finding suggests the importance of using policies that boost productivity to offset the effect of tariffs on the wage premium.     

DISTRIBUTING THE GAINS FROM TRADE WITH INCOMPLETE INFORMATION*

We argue that the incomplete information which the government has about domestic agents means that tariffs become an optimal instrument to protect them from import competition. Using a model where agents have private information about their endowments, we solve for the optimal government policy subject to the political constraint of ensuring Pareto gains from trade, the incentive compatibility constraint, and the government's budget constraint. We find that the optimal policy takes the form of nonlinear tariffs. These tariffs are never complete, in the sense of bringing prices back to their initial level, but always allow some individuals to be strictly better off than at the initial prices.     

THE WELFARE PERFORMANCE OF SEQUENTIAL PRICING MECHANISMS*

Consumers are commonly required to subscribe to particular tariff options before uncertainty regarding their future purchases gets resolved. Since the general comparison of welfare performance of different pricing mechanisms is ambiguous, this article empirically evaluates the expected welfare associated with standard nonlinear pricing and optional tariffs by using information directly linked to the type of individual consumers. Results show that tariffs composed of nonlinear options do not necessarily outperform simpler pricing strategies in terms of expected profits. Furthermore, evidence suggests that a menu of optional two‐part tariffs dominates any other pricing strategy from an expected welfare perspective.     

Tariffs,Offshoring and Unemployment in A Two‐Country Model

This paper develops a two‐country model that incorporates offshoring opportunities, and analyses the effects of tariffs under economic stagnation in a liquidity trap that causes unemployment. We find that a rise in tariffs on imports of outsourced goods contributes to an increase in employment by inducing a shift in production, but also leads to an appreciation of the real exchange rate that tends to reduce employment. The effect of real exchange rate appreciation dominates the effect of the production shift, and accordingly employment and consumption fall. The effects of tariff adjustments are reversed, however, when there is no liquidity trap and hence no unemployment.     

Trade policy and industrial development: iron and steel in a small open economy, 1870−1913

In this paper we argue that effective tariff protection associated with the 1879 National Policy and the 1887 Tupper tariffs triggered investment in new, technologically advanced blast furnaces that were capable of accommodating rapid output expansion. This conclusion is based on an appreciation of the timing of late nineteenth‐century investments in Canada and their connection to changes in government policy and other demand determinants. In our empirical investigation we use new information on westbound transatlantic freight rates, intra‐continental transport costs, and furnace‐specific micro‐data, and we acknowledge the endogenous relationships linking investment to domestic demand, labour costs, and tariffs.     

An Incentive Water Pricing Policy for Sustainable Water Use

By adopting the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the European Commission (EC) and the European Council made recommendations for water pricing policies in European Union (EU) member states with a view to enhancing the sustainability of water resources. Clearly, the directive integrates economic instruments in environmental policies to provide incentives for the sustainable use of water resources. Our analysis will focus on public water utilities, required to be financially self-sufficient, facing demand and capacity shocks. The paper deals with the simultaneous determination of incentive pricing policies and investment rules under an ex~ante maximum demand charge. We will characterize the welfare-optimal capacity selection rule and the welfare-optimal maximum demand pricing rule. Heterogeneous consumers demands are considered when tariffs are set ex~ante, before demands are known. Our results are state-contingent nonlinear pricing that responds to demand fluctuations and capacity constraints.      

Efficient price and capacity choices under uncertain demand: An empirical analysis

Traditional economic analyses of the peak-load problem typically assume an unrealistic degree of regularity in demand during well-defined peak and off-peak periods. This issue is addressed through a comprehensive statistical model that separates demand into its systematic and stochastic components. This model is combined with a traditional economic model and applied to local telephone service, leading to substantive conclusions relevant for managerial decisions as well as further research, among them:

? Neglecting the systematicand stochastic structure of demand may lead to inefficient tariffs. Efficient measured service structures typically price individual callsbelow incremental capacity cost.

? Industry wide capacity decision rules that are exclusively driven by blockage probability targets during narrowly defined time periods may be economically inefficient.

? For telephone service, spot pricing, which sets high prices during periods ofactual congestion, has the potential to be considerably more efficient than traditional tariffs that set high prices during periods ofexpected congestion.

     

A spatial equilibrium analysis of trade policy reforms on the world wheat market

Since a few countries produce most of the world's wheat, and consumption is widespread across the world, wheat is one of the most commonly traded agricultural commodities. In recent years, the wheat market has been going through difficult phases as wheat prices are depressed. The fall in wheat prices is attributed to a supply glut and restrictive trade barriers. This study develops a large-scale spatial equilibrium trade model for wheat to analyse the effects of removing trade barriers (tariffs and subsidies) on each country's/region's price, supply, demand, trade, welfare, and bilateral trade flows. The results show that trade liberalization leads to an increase (decrease) in prices in the exporting (importing) countries. Production and exports increase in the exporting country, and consumption and imports increase in the importing country. Consequently, the volume of trade also increases. The welfare of most countries rises, and thus, world welfare also rises.     

Some Economics of Integrated and Segmented Markets

For the purposes of the discussion in this paper, whether markets are integrated or segmented is endogenous and is determined by the interaction of demand parameters, tariffs, transportation costs, and arbitrage. Given certain restrictions, it is shown, in equilibrium, that policymakers choose tariffs to segment markets. The effects of trade liberalization (reducing all tariffs to zero) in an endogenous market structure framework are determined and compared to the existing literature. The results differ substantially, highlighting the importance of explicit modeling of costly arbitrage in imperfectly competitive models.