Independent decision making of adolescents regarding food choice

The adolescence period is the stage in the life cycle in which individuals begin to develop independent decision making related to their social environment including their dietary intake. The period is fundamental in the development of longer term eating habits that may be reflected in adulthood. This study aimed to investigate the decision‐making process of adolescents and their dietary behaviour in the achievement of a balanced diet and to determine the underlying factors that may affect these choices. To meet this aim, a three phase data collection was utilized. In phase 1, a baseline questionnaire (n = 239) measured factors affecting dietary behaviour and the barriers in the achievement of a balanced diet. Phase two employed and measured respondents’ (n = 235) independent decision making by rating nineteen menu choices which reflected all options of dietary guidelines. This was analyzed through conjoint analysis. In phase three a subsample (n = 55) from the first two phases completed a food map which determined underlying reasons for food decisions and choice behaviour. Results revealed that when adolescents are given free choice they tend to follow an unbalanced diet with some diets raising concerns for their current and future health. Fifty‐seven percent of respondents displayed serious concerns in their dietary choice of which 18% were identified as requiring immediate intervention. The most noticeable factors affecting dietary choice were the desire to eat foods high in fat and carbohydrates and low in fruit and vegetable consumption. Food‐mapping indicated prior knowledge and attitudes had no effect on the choices made but that that behaviour of parents in the preparation of meals at home and peers in the selection of snack choices had the most influence on the unbalanced diet.     

Comparison of attitudes towards school lunch by elementary school children in Japan,Korea and Thailand

The attitudes of elementary school children towards school lunch among three Asian countries, namely Japan, Korea and Thailand, were compared. More school children in Japan felt that their teachers gave them advice during the school lunch programme. Japanese and Korean teachers advised their children to eat as much as possible of the lunch. Korean children may be a little more obedient with regard to heeding the advice. However, few teachers in Thailand gave the children advice over eating lunch, and the Thai children looked forward to and enjoyed the school lunch. The different responses between Thailand and other two countries may be attributed in part to the differences in the teachers' instruction in the programme. Elementary school teachers, especially in Thailand and Korea, have to take more classes in food and nutrition in universities or colleges, and positively take part in the school lunch programme.     

Food choice,nutrition education and parental influence on British and Korean primary school children

The nutritional status of children can influence their health and the risk factors for developing chronic diseases later in life. Korea is unique in that it is relatively westernized and yet maintains much of the traditional foods and cooking methods. Effective nutrition education should help children to choose a healthy diet through the establishment of positive dietary practices and habits. The main purpose of this research is to compare awareness towards nutrition education between primary schools in the UK and Korea and nutritional knowledge that children and parents have in these countries. Dietary and healthy eating knowledge data were collected by a questionnaire as part of a case study comparison using one primary school in Manchester, UK, and one in Seoul, Korea. A total of 171 primary school children and 124 parents of the children were recruited. The results indicated that children and parents appeared to be aware of the importance of limiting fat, sodium and sugar intakes, and requiring non‐starch polysaccharide (NSP). However, in the case of some foods they did not have satisfactory nutritional knowledge of which foods were high in fat, salt, sugar and NSP. British children had a better understanding of the health implication of fat than Korean children, whereas more Korean children considered excessive salt intake harmful than British children. There seemed to be differences in dietary pattern and familiarity with food between the two countries. Children identified parents as the main source of nutritional information. Therefore, parents as well as children need to learn about nutrition in order to give appropriate information or advice to improve the diets of their children. Children preferred exciting, fun, positive and a practical approach to learning about nutrition, such as computer packages and cookery classes. Parents wanted schools to give their children more information about nutrition. This research has shown that nutrition education in schools should be concerned not only to provide nutritional knowledge but also to encourage children to choose healthy food by redesigning nutrition education and school meals.     

A characterization of peanut consumption in four countries: results from focus groups and their implications for peanut allergy prevalence

Rates of peanut allergy in the Western world have increased over the last 30 years, although it is unclear why. While eating behaviours are likely to be connected to allergy prevalence, the precise relevant factors are uncertain. This study aimed to investigate dietary differences and changes in dietary habits in peanut consumption (in apparent and hidden forms) in four different countries (Bulgaria, Poland, Spain, UK), specifically chosen because of their different ‘peanut experiences’. Focus groups revealed a common perception that dietary habits have become less healthy, with more consumption of processed foods and an increase in snacking. In addition, ethnic cuisine was perceived to have had an important impact on European eating habits, while participants identified an increase in consumption of more ‘exotic’ forms of peanuts and their products. These findings point to an increase in exposure to peanuts, particularly in hidden forms, that superficially parallels increased prevalence rates. However, it was also clear that participants lacked knowledge about the composition of food and non‐food products. The dietary trends identified here thus warrant further quantitative investigation, particularly in the context of differential national patterns of allergy prevalence – data on which is currently being gathered within the EC‐funded EuroPrevall project.     

The link between diet and health: an exploratory study of adolescents in Northern Ireland using foodmaps

A significant proportion of consumers in the UK continue to adopt a diet consisting largely of nutritionally unbalanced foods. The adolescent period has been identified as being formative in the development of long‐term eating habits as the individual achieves greater control over their food choice. By examining the current eating behaviour of a sample of adolescents, the aim of this study was to establish why they are not utilizing their knowledge to choose nutritionally balanced foods. A two‐stage data collecting procedure was adopted. In stage 1, respondents (n = 136) completed a questionnaire that measured demographic and social factors, knowledge, attitudes, pre‐existing behaviour with respect to food and the influence of family, peers, the media and government campaigns on their eating behaviour. In stage 2, a subsection of the respondents (n = 20) completed a foodmap, which revealed the network of relationships involved in the adolescents' decision‐making process by identifying the links among the foods consumed, the people they eat with and the places they eat in. Results emphasized the importance of the home environment and the continuing influence of parents on adolescents' eating behaviour despite the greater independence related to this stage of the life cycle. A proportion of the sample was found to have recognized the need to change their eating behaviour in order to lose weight, because of their sporting commitments or to improve their health. Recommendations from this study include the need for the various agencies involved in the promotion of balanced dietary behaviour to attend to the link among adult, family and adolescent, and the need for greater progress in enabling consumers to translate the theory of nutritional education into practice.     

Culture and consumption expenditure patterns: comparison between Korean and United States households

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify household consumption expenditure patterns in the US and to determine if these patterns are different from those of Korean households. Data were cluster analysed, and the results revealed four different consumption expenditure patterns for US and Korean households. Logit analysis showed that consumption expenditure patterns of households in both countries are likely to vary depending on socioeconomic factors. Similarities and differences in consumption expenditure patterns between cultures are discussed, and implications are provided.     

Social status and country‐of‐origin preferences

This paper explores consumers' attitudes towards products of foreign origin according to consumer social status, particularly when purchases come from countries that have a low‐cost/low quality image. The research question is: for an identical good (same manufacturer, same brand), do consumers belonging to lower social classes ask for a larger price discount than higher social status consumers when they are offered the opportunity to switch from a country of manufacture whose quality image is well established, to a country of manufacture, the image of which is more uncertain (e.g. South Korea)? A structural equations model is used to highlight the fact that social status has only an indirect influence on the discounts for shifting to lower‐image countries. The relatively weak image of Korean products (at least against Germany and Japan) tends to result in higher price rebates asked for the Korean manufacturing origin. But lower social status consumers evaluate Korea more positively as a country‐of‐origin. The normative recommendation for the advertising strategy of “cheap” origins' goods in highly developed markets would be to put emphasis on quality rather than price, especially when modest consumers and lower classes are explicitly targeted.     

Factors influencing unhealthy eating behaviour in US adolescents

This research explores the simultaneous effects of key variables on unhealthy eating behaviour. Specifically, this study focuses on the relative effects of advertising, parental and peer influence, and self‐efficacy on the unhealthy eating behaviour of US adolescents. The results suggest that: (1) parental influence, peer influence and self‐efficacy significantly predict unhealthy eating behaviour; (2) self‐efficacy is the strongest predictor of unhealthy eating behaviour; and (3) advertising effects are largely neutralized by parental influence, peer influence and self‐efficacy.     

Investigating the gap between citizens' sustainability attitudes and food purchasing behaviour: empirical evidence from Brazilian pork consumers

Consumers worldwide are increasingly concerned with sustainable production and consumption. Recently, a comprehensive study ranked 17 countries in regard to their environmentally friendly behaviour among consumers. Brazil was one of the top countries in the list. Yet, several studies highlight significant differences between consumers' intentions to consume ethically, and their actual purchase behaviour: the so‐called ‘Attitude‐Behaviour Gap’. In developing countries, few studies have been conducted on this issue. The objective of this study is therefore to investigate the gap between citizens' sustainability‐related attitudes and food purchasing behaviour using empirical data from Brazil. To this end, Brazilian citizens' attitudes towards pig production systems were mapped through conjoint analysis and their coexistence with relevant pork product‐related purchasing behaviour of consumers was investigated through cluster analysis. The conjoint experiment was carried out with empirical data collected from 475 respondents surveyed in the South and Center‐West regions of Brazil. The results of the conjoint analysis were used for a subsequent cluster analysis in order to identify clusters of Brazilian citizens with diversified attitudes towards pig production systems, using socio‐demographics, attitudes towards sustainability‐related themes that are expected to influence the way they evaluate pig production systems, and consumption frequency of various pork products as clusters' background information. Three clusters were identified as ‘indifferent’, ‘environmental conscious’ and ‘sustainability‐oriented’ citizens. Although attitudes towards environment and nature had indeed an influence on citizens' specific attitudes towards pig farming at the cluster level, the relationship between ‘citizenship’ and consumption behaviour was found to be weak. This finding is similar to previous research conducted with European consumers: what people (in their role of citizens) think about pig production systems does not appear to significantly influence their pork consumption choices. Improvements in the integrated management of this chain would better meet consumers' sustainability‐related expectations towards pig production systems.     

The golden age of protein: initial teacher trainee's perception of food and eating

We make use of proteins in all aspects of our daily lives from soft‐centred sweets to biological washing powders, yet we often misunderstand their fundamental role in our diet. This paper will draw on the findings of a three‐phase research project into initial teacher trainee's perception of food and eating. Trainees demonstrated several similar misconceptions about the food they eat and in particular, the role of proteins. Examples included the role of proteins as an energy source, the relationship between proteins, amino acids and nitrogen and the role of DNA in synthesising proteins. These misconceptions were often translated into practice in the diet the trainees consumed and the messages they passed on, with confidence, to their pupils. In addition to the misconceptions, teaching approaches used by the trainees were highly mechanistic, with little reference being given to the relationship between food and the circumstances in which it is eaten. The relationship between dietary intake and exercise/circumstance is explored in secondary schools within food technology lessons. Often, however, it is too late to rectify the deeply entrenched misconceptions, attitudes and eating habits that school children have developed in their primary years. This paper makes the firm recommendation that we should reconsider the dietary messages we are sending out either directly or indirectly, to children. It emphasises the need to relate teaching and learning to everyday experiences. The paper concludes by suggesting possible strategies by which this may be achieved, with the protein featuring centre‐stage.     

Modelling tourism expenditure using complexity theory

This study contributes to the literature by offering a novel analytical approach to solving complex interactions of tourism expenditure antecedents, advancing the theoretical reasoning behind the way in which socioeconomic indicators of prosperity combine to explain tourism expenditure on an international scale. The study explored a variety of configurations sufficient for simulation of both high and low scores of outbound tourism expenditures that have policy implications in both destination countries and countries of origin. We used complexity theory and fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) to analyze a composite score of 5-year data for 105 countries. The predictive validity results indicated the capacity of the proposed model to predict future outcome using other samples. The results expand our knowledge of the asymmetrical relationships of tourism expenditure and its antecedents.     

The globalisation–welfare state nexus: Evidence from Asia

How globalisation influences social expenditure has been examined for industrialised countries. Globalisation has often been shown to be positively associated with social expenditure in established industrialised countries, a finding that corroborates the compensation hypothesis. Scholars have focused on industrialised countries, because social expenditure is difficult to measure in developing countries. I use new data on social expenditure for Asian non‐OECD countries. Globalisation is measured by the new KOF Globalisation Index. My results do not suggest that globalisation influenced social expenditures in Asia. Neither do the results suggest that the nexus between globalisation and social expenditures varied across high‐income countries, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, and lower‐income Asian countries or across Asian regions. It is conceivable that Asian citizens did not demand increasing social support when globalisation proceeded rapidly because they enjoyed family and other private assistance. Asian countries also have weaker tax and labour market institutions than OECD countries and have therefore more difficulties in increasing social expenditure.     

Chinese dietary culture influences consumers' intention to use imported soy‐based dietary supplements: an application of the theory of planned behaviour

The over‐saturated dietary supplement (DS) market in developed countries such as the US spurs the need for foreign market expansion, and the Chinese market provides a great potential for the foreign soy‐based DS industry. This study examined Chinese consumers' intention to use imported (US‐made US‐brand) soy‐based DS based on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Two alternative models were also examined in which Chinese dietary culture variables, including soyfoods favourability and dining‐out sociability, as well as their interactions with attitudes, were integrated into the TPB model. A cross‐sectional, self‐administered survey was conducted with a sample of 215 subjects (137 females; 78 males) in Shanghai, China. The TPB variables attitude, subjective norm, perceived behaviour control and behavioural intention, as well as the Chinese dietary culture variables: soyfoods favourability and dine‐out sociability were measured. Multiple linear regressions were used to analyze the three models. The statistical results indicated that all three models were statistically significant to predict intention (Model 1: R² = 0.473, P < 0.001; Model 2: R² = 0.505, P < 0.001; Model 3: R² = 0.525, P < 0.001). The results also showed that attitude, perceived behavioural control, and dine‐out sociability were significant (positive) determinants of intention. Soyfoods favourability acted a significant (negative) moderator of the relationship between attitude and intention. Subjective norm had no significant impact on intention. In conclusion, the TPB model was useful to predict Chinese consumers' intention to use imported soy‐based DS, but not all the TPB components weighed significantly in exploring DS consumption in China. The selected Chinese dietary culture variables were much more important predictors than subjective norm. This study makes a significant contribution in the application of the TPB model and in market strategy development for imported dietary supplements in China.     

Relationship between the curriculum system and the understanding of nutritional terms in elementary school children

To clarify the relation between the curriculum system and the understanding of nutrition terms, 944 students aged 8–12 years living in Japan, the USA and the UK, were asked about the recognition, medium for recognition, and understanding of nutrition terms. The effect of nutrition education from an early stage in elementary schools in the UK and the USA was confirmed. These results suggest the possibility of beginning nutrition education earlier in the elementary school in Japan. American students had paid attention to food labels. These results showed that a learning and teaching strategy founded on comprehensively based subjects in the USA had influenced good behaviour for dietary life. On the other hand, there was not a relationship between an understanding of nutrition terms and a developmental stage. Many students in three countries were influenced by television commercials to buy candy or soda. We think that it is important to develop a curriculum that includes practical learning and ensures hours of teaching for the purpose of acquirement of nutritional knowledge. It is also necessary to encourage critical thinking skills to evaluate television commercial messages through school lessons.     

Exploring the influence of family on adolescents’ seafood consumption choices

Seafood in the adolescent diet has many benefits, yet a number of adolescents do not consume the recommended levels. Despite this the consumption of seafood by younger consumers has received scant attention in the extant literature. Previous studies on adolescents’ food‐related behaviour tend to focus on general choice mechanisms or perceptions of food and mainly relate to fruit and vegetable intake. The present study seeks to address this gap through investigating the impact of family upon the consumption of seafood by younger consumers through exploring adolescents’ attitudes and behaviour in regard to eating seafood. Utilizing an exploratory qualitative methodology, seven focus groups of adolescents aged 13–19 years were conducted at two schools in South West England. Discussions covered a range of issues related to adolescent seafood consumption. The use of thematic content analysis found that the family, and parents in particular, exert high levels of influence over adolescents’ consumption of seafood both at home and when dining out. The parent who does the shopping and cooking has the greatest role. Sibling preferences and dietary choices also influence whether seafood is served in the home. Of value to researchers and management are the insights gleaned into the influences on adolescents’ attitudes towards and behaviour in regard to eating seafood. In particular, encouraging seafood consumption will rely upon interventions aimed at both parents and children and need to take into account adolescents’ diet and lifestyle preferences, while also acknowledging the influence of peers and the school food environment.     

Can Japan Make a Comeback?

Since the beginning of the 1990s Japan has experienced economic stagnation. The economy had been allowed to overheat in the 1980s and a bubble had been built up. When this burst, there was massive asset‐deflation, which led to a banking crisis. The bad debts were not faced up to effectively. Japanese banks could not achieve high enough margins to recapitalise themselves, and the government was for a long time reluctant to intervene effectively. The shock made economic agents more pessimistic, which led to an imbalance between savings and investment‐demand. Excess savings were placed abroad and used to finance a domestic fiscal deficit, but this was not enough to close the gap and sustain growth. To be able to run a large current account surplus the yen needed to depreciate, but this was not achieved due to expectations about a future appreciation. The strategy to get out of the liquidity trap would include credible inflation targeting and yen depreciation. Monetary policy should have an inflation target well above zero per cent. Such macroeconomic measures need to be complemented by structural reforms such as deregulation of financial services, competition policy and reallocation of public investments. The Japanese development model with close connections between firms and banks needs to be reformed. Japan should be able to achieve stable growth again, but since the catch‐up phase is over one would not expect growth in Japan to be higher than in other developed countries, even if Japan undertakes the needed reforms.     

Time orientation and construal level: effects on eating and exercising behaviour and preferences

Eating and exercising behaviour are both characterized by immediate and future consequences. Consequently, consideration of these consequences (i.e. time orientation) predicts eating and exercising behaviour. We investigate whether construal level acts as an underlying mechanism of these relations. Students (N = 101) completed measures of consideration of immediate and future consequences (i.e. CFC‐food and CFC‐exercise), construal level, eating and exercising behaviour and preferences. For self‐reported eating and exercising behaviour, only direct effects of consideration of immediate and future consequences were found. For eating preferences, however, there was evidence of an indirect effect through construal level. A stronger tendency to consider future consequences led to a stronger preference for utilitarian (as compared with hedonic) food products through a more abstract construal level. All in all, construal level partially explains the differential relations between consideration of immediate and future consequences and eating and exercising behaviour and preferences.     

Parental eating messages and dietary guideline compliance of college students

The purpose of this study was to identify parental eating messages from the point of view of 340 college students and the relationship of these messages to dietary guideline practices. Four types of parental eating messages were identified: (1) threat or guilt, (2) picky eater, (3) food as health, (4) critical weight. Five types of dietary guide practices were identified: (1) fat meals and snacks, (2) vegetable–fruit, (3) sugar‐salt convenience food, (4) fitness–protein–carbohydrate, (5) fat add‐ons. The lack of association of parental eating messages with any of the dietary guideline factors suggests that messages are not affecting the food choices of these college students. Parental messages may in fact represent the way different cultures address eating, parenting and caring.     

Using commercial advertising agencies in micronutrient promotion: lessons learned

Lack of knowledge, beliefs about food, customs, and poverty are the main factors preventing millions of people from eating enough micronutrient-rich foods. Globally, more than 2 billion people are at risk of iron, vitamin A, and iodine deficiencies. Opportunities for Micronutrient Intervention (OMNI), a 5-year project funded by the Office of Health and Nutrition, US Agency for International Development, is dedicated to preventing and controlling micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries. OMNI's general approaches to reducing micronutrient deficiencies include fortification, supplementation, and dietary diversification. For all of those approaches, the project has stressed a social marketing methodology to define and motivate feasible behavior changes which will benefit maternal and child health and nutrition. The Manoff Group, the OMNI partner most responsible for behavior change, has had many positive experiences using social marketing to address micronutrient malnutrition, breast-feeding, and child feeding in many countries. Focusing mainly upon supplementation and dietary diversification, OMNI's experience to date in El Salvador, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Bolivia is summarized.     

Family characteristics and convenience food expenditure in urban Korea

This study uses a sample of 39 025 urban families from the 1996 Korean Family Income and Expenditures Survey to examine the relationship between family characteristics and expenditure on convenience foods. Results indicate that age and education of the family's head, number of children, presence of children under the age of six, the wife's labour force participation, and area of residence were significant in predicting the level of expenditure on convenience foods. The present study points to and gives a rationale to differences in some of the effects as compared with those found in Western countries.