Technology transfer in small‐scale dryland crop production: Future challenges

The study focuses on maize technology transfer in a typical homeland maize‐growing area. Two thirds of maize growers were women. Thirty per cent of producers were over 60 years of age, 20 per cent were illiterate and 50‐60 per cent were living in varying states of poverty. There was insufficient contact and intensity of contact with all sources of farming information. The ‘trickle down’ process from progressive to less progressive farmers has been unsuccessful.

Less than half of the farmers were implementing practices according to proven recommendations. This was related to a lack of knowledge. Most farmers did not realise that all practices were interrelated, resulting in below optimum yields.

Innovativeness was explained by greater farming resources, farming knowledge, contact with information sources and level of education, while yield per ha was also explained by greater farming resources, as well as the presence of the male head of household and contact with extension workers.

Farming populations are not homogeneous relative to farming practices and technology has been developed to suit the more progressive farmers. Future technology transfer strategies should be based on a targeted approach to reach both progressive and low‐access and resource‐poor farmers.     

The effect of HIV on health care in sub‐Saharan Africa

This article is concerned with the hitherto neglected area of the effect of HIV on the delivery of health care in sub‐Saharan Africa. The task is hampered by a lack of usable data. In most countries there have been no sentinel HIV surveys, so we have no clear idea of the magnitude of the epidemic. However, it is certain that HIV will alter the demand for health care, and the supply and quality of services.

Demand will grow as infected adults and children seek care. Most HIV‐related illness is found in people who would not normally require care, and therefore creates additional demand. Demand for care will also be determined by the availability and accessibility of services. Ironically, the middle‐income countries may face higher bills, and in this sense the effect of the HIV epidemic may be worse in the more developed world.

The supply of services will be affected by increased morbidity and mortality among health care workers. This is already happening. The generous terms and conditions of service that most governments offer to workers in the public sector will make the problem worse.

HIV has served to improve the quality of health care in most of the developed world. Patients have sought to take control over their own care, and staff have been more rigorous in taking universal precautions. But in developing countries external aid often determines how health care is organised, and money spent on AIDS is diverted from other areas. This may also be true of local funding.

The effect of HIV on health care is lamentably under‐researched. This is particularly worrying as the effects of HIV will be felt first by the health care sector. The problem must be confronted urgently from the point of view of the suppliers of health care services, the users, and the policy‐makers.     

Effective extension for increased productivity and a better quality of life

Extension serves as a catalyst for development People must be helped to help themselves and should therefore be involved in their own decision‐making processes. For the participative approach to work. it is imperative that local leaders be trained.

Privatisation is a development phase and not the starting point in development Not all services can be privatised.

It is a mistake to believe that sub‐subsistence farmers are immune to change.     

Book briefs

Key variables in social investigation, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1986, vii + 276 pp.

Reproductive change in developing countries, Insights from the World Fertility Survey, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1985, xvi + 301 pp, ISBN 0‐19‐828465‐9.

The world crisis in education, The view from the eighties, Oxford University Press, New York, 1985, vii + 353 pp ISBN 0‐19‐503503‐8

Reaching the Urban Poor, Project implementation in developing countries, Westview Press, Boulder Colorado. 1986, vii + 264 pp, ISBN 0‐8133‐7129‐5

Housing policy, An international bibliography, Mansell Publishing Limited, New York, 1986, ix ‐ 398 pp, ISBN 0‐7201‐1785‐2

Agribusiness and the small‐scale farmer: A dynamic partner for development, Westview Press, Boulder, 1985

Agriculture and employment in developing countries: Strategies for effective rural development, Westview Press, Boulder, 1985

Progress in natural resource economics, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985

International agricultural trade: Advanced readings in price formation, market structure and price instability 1984

The role of markets in the world food economy, Westview Press, Boulder, 1983     

Basic needs: An assessment of education and nutritional status in two villages of Venda

A basic needs survey was conducted among people living on two agricultural smallholder schemes in Venda. The paper describes the research methodology and assesses the availability of education and the nutritional status of respondents on these two schemes.

Neither the availability of formal schooling nor extension work is satisfactory. The situation regarding primary education has improved over the last few years and almost every child in the survey area goes to school. This seems to be an indication of changing attitudes among parents, increased money available for schooling, as well as greater financial commitments from the Government. However, informal training through extension is carried out only on an irregular basis.

An assessment of the frequency of consumption of various foodstuffs suggests an emphasis on carbohydrates at the expense of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Villagers interviewed indicated that food is in short supply and that allocation of additional land could assist in overcoming these shortages.     

A proposed institutional framework for successful rural development in less developed areas of Southern Africa∗

Whatever aspects of institutional change are important for successful rural development, political power will inevitably be a determining issue. A strong national planning and development organisation to facilitate co‐ordination between government departments, parastatal and other organisations is essential. Coupled with this is the need for a national policy for action, with supporting services and adequate financial support. Suggestions have been put forward for decentralised, co‐ordinated and effective administrative organisations at village, district and regional level, with particular emphasis laid on village‐level participation in rural development programmes.

There should be an autonomous institution for the promotion of input supplies and marketing, consistent government financing, rural infrastructure and rural service centres, all of which are essential for successful rural development. It is important that the activities of the private sector be co‐ordinated at various levels as part of the national rural development effort. A politically acceptable land tenure code with appropriate legislative and judicial support needs to be built in to a rural development strategy.

It is essential that there be appropriate co‐ordination of research and extension through proper institutional mechanisms, so that it becomes an integral part of rural development planning.     

The promotion of maize fertiliser packages: A cause of household food insecurity and peasant impoverishment in high rainfall areas of Zimbabwe

Child malnutrition is a continuing problem in Zimbabwe's communal areas. These include some high rainfall areas, which make a contribution to the country's maize surplus during non‐drought years. A survey of farmers and extension workers in four high rainfall communal areas was carried out to investigate the effects of following recommended practices for maize production on household economy and food security.

Thirty‐two per cent of communal farmers had applied all the officially recommended fertiliser to their 1990/91 maize crop, often by obtaining these inputs on credit in lieu of grain sales receipts from the subsequent harvest. Yet. yields were so low that 48 per cent of these farmers would have been unable to retain sufficient grain to satisfy their families’ minimum requirements, if they had reimbursed the full cost of the input credit.

The majority (64 per cent) of farmers had deviatedfrom the recommended practice by adopting ‘low external input strategies’. A key feature of most of these strategies was the substitution of manure for part or all of the recommended fertiliser. In three of the four communal areas studied, this had improved the chances not only of recovering input costs, but also of achieving maize self‐sufficiency.

These results suggest that policy‐makers should shift emphasis from a dependence on costly external inputs to the integration of low levels of fertiliser with a range of more natural methods of soil improvement, in an effort to improve household food security in the communal areas.     

Evaluation of hotboxes in rural and peri‐urban areas∗

A hotbox, or wonderbox as it is commonly known, is a simple time, energy and money saving device for cooking. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of wonderboxes on cooking patterns and household energy consumption in rural and peri— urban areas, and to make recommendations about the design of wonderboxes and about dissemination strategies. The research consisted mainly of questionnaires and interviews. In addition, practical experience was obtained in establishing a small wonderbox‐making enterprise.

The fuel most commonly used in conjunction with a wonderbox is paraffin, and in some cases possession of a wonderbox facilitated the transition from firewood to paraffin. There is little doubt that wonderboxes reduce energy consumption, but data on energy savings are inconsistent. It appears, however, that a wonderbox will recover its cost (usually about R12 in 1987) in less than six months.

While users of wonderboxes are appreciative of their fuel‐saving capabilities, the primary motivation in buying a wonderbox is usually convenience, time‐saving and the ability to leave food cooking while away at work. In fact, there were three times as many women in paid employment in the sample of wonderbox users, compared to non‐users.

Wonderboxes are apparently not perceived as being an inferior technology, which is often a problem with appropriate technology. They are rather seen in the context of advancement the transition from subsistence to wage employment, from noncommercial to commercial fuels, from drudgery to time‐saving. In promoting wonderboxes, this perception should be given as much or more emphasis than energy‐saving, and the drab appearance of the box should be changed.

While possession of a wonderbox has sometimes introduced changes in the pattern of food preparation and fuel use, it does not impose an inflexible and unfamiliar domestic regime on the household, which might have made wonderboxes unacceptable.

Many people are unaware of wonderboxes and their advantages, and this lack of knowledge is a constraint on dissemination. However, it is suggested in this report that the most serious constraint is that wonderboxes are unavailable except through a few, mainly non‐commercial, outlets. Two possible solutions to the problem of distribution should be investigated. The first is to make use of existing wholesale and retail networks. The second is the establishment of several small scattered wonderbox‐making enterprises in rural and peri‐urban areas, assisted by a central service organisation.     

Crop farming system constraints in Transkei: Implications for research and extension∗

The paper discusses the results of a farming systems research (FSR) study focusing on problem identification, diagnosing constraints and making recommendations on institutional and technological changes aimed at improving the impact of research and extension on crop farming systems in Transkei.

The study showed that the large gap between farmer yields and best potential yields is caused by both biological constraints in the sense of non‐application or poor application of technology, and by socio‐economic and institutional constraints which prevent farmers from using the recommended technology.

Knowledge of crops was found to be the most important variable determining adoption of maize practices, which emphasizes the importance of research and extension in providing appropriate knowledge and technology. Recommendations are made for institutional reform and for advancing current technology by improving draught power and tillage methods, evaluating inter‐cropping systems, integrating crop and livestock production, and developing technology for improving plant population and weed control.     

Development planning in the third world education in Botswana: A case study

Development planning is regarded as essential for advancement in the Third World. This article discusses planning in Botswana, specifically in the area of education. The economic and educational developments in Botswana are described.

The process of development planning is discussed under a number of headings, namely the administration of development planning Botswana; drawing up a development plan; and implementing the plan.

The hypothesis that planning, to some extent, arises from compromises that in turn result from conflicts among the planners, is discussed. Examples are given to illustrate this. The article argues that conflicts will increase as financial constraints become more important in Botswana.     

Public administration and development

Public Administration is the study of the activities of government. Where governments accept responsibility for development, public administration is the administration of development.

The approach of public administration to development is one of contingency: to ascertain what a situation is in terms of its environment and devise strategic, structural and procedural interventions appropriate to the situation.

A contingency approach to public administration fits into a social knowledge paradigm which posits that development happens by capacity building through social learning.     

Optimal technology for different levels of managerial ability: A case study of maize cultivar selection

The higher the genetic potential, the more reliant a cultivar will be on the creation of a favourable environment by man. The ability to create a favourable environment is partially a function of the farmer's managerial ability. Due to differences in managerial ability between developed and less developed agriculture, high yield varieties often perform more poorly than lower yield varieties in less developed agriculture and are also more risky.

Regression line graphics may be used to illustrate the effect of managerial ability on cultivar selection. Less sensitive cultivars, although often regarded as low yield cultivars, should be recommended in areas or on projects with lower yield potential or where the level of managerial ability is relatively low.

In less developed agriculture, farmers’ thresholds of resistance to setbacks are rather low. This makes risk behaviour a rational mode of behaviour. Thus, the optimal choice will be to select less risky cultivars that will produce, under less than ideal circumstances, higher yields than those cultivars regarded as high producers only under ideal conditions.

This principle also applies to many other facets of technology and should also continually be considered by advisers and planners in less developed regions.     

The role of universities in training for development

The first part of this article starts by discussing the central issue of what a university ought to be in the Southern African context. Included in the analysis is the conventional model for a university as well as the urge for relevance of the university and the issue of relevance in an intensely changing region.

In the second part of the article the focus moves to the changing debate on the concept of development Development has increasingly been defined as striving towards creating opportunities for people to move towards increased humanity.

In order to bring about development as defined in this way, the participation of the people, the recognition of social Justice, education in the broadest sense of the word, community development that can lead to social reconstruction, as well as the provision of a sphere for meaningful existence will have to be included in university training for development This article addresses aspects of such a humantsatlon of university training for development.     

The role of dryland cotton as a source of household income in two magisterial districts of KwaZulu

The aim of this paper is to illuminate certain economic aspects of the production of dryland cotton among rural households in the Ubombo and Hlabisa magisterial districts of KwaZulu. In order to assess the viability of the household cotton enterprise, its contribution to household income and the producers' perceived constraints to production, an interview survey was conducted among 100 cotton‐adopting households in the two study areas. Multi‐stage sampling techniques were employed to facilitate the study.

Results show that the Ubombo region's inherent climatic suitability, combined with extensive support services, has benefited the dryland producer and resulted in a lucrative on‐farm enterprise. Cotton contributed an average of 62 per cent to annual household income in this district

In the climatically less suitable Hlablsa district, where producers are limited by lack of finance and small land sizes, wage labour was found to be the prime source of cash income for the household, while cotton contributed an average of 17 per cent towards annual household income.

Producers in both areas are cost effective relative to the white commercial farmer while mean yields and net incomes indicate that dryland cotton has the potential to contribute much to the development of certain areas of KwaZulu. Overspending on chemicals may indicate the need for increased extension into complex pest control management procedures.     

The main findings of the district pilot project of labour‐intensive road construction and maintenance in Botswana and the implications for similar projects in South Africa

Unemployment has been identified as one of the main problems confronting South Africa. Recently, in order to improve rural infrastructure and create employment, several pilot projects of rural road construction have been initiated in South Africa. In such a context it is considered that attention should be drawn to a pilot project carried out some time ago in Botswana to examine the potential of labour‐intensive methods in the construction and maintenance of rural roads.

The main conclusion of the pilot project was that labour‐intensive methods were viable, although attention had to be paid to several critical factors. In 1982, following its evaluation of the pilot project, the Government of Botswana decided that over the next five years the technical and organisational methods developed during the pilot project should be replicated throughout Botswana.

After a brief survey of the background to the project, the paper summarises several important features of the pilot project and its main findings. The paper closes with some comments on the implications of this pilot project for those currently underway in South Africa.     

An overview of agricultural and rural development problems in less developed areas of Southern Africa

The problems discussed in this paper are essentially the influence of various factors which underlie the present low levels of agricultural production and the constraints to development of the less developed rural areas of Southern Africa.

The nature, intensity and output of small‐scale farming systems are dependent upon the interactions between and within five groups of factors: physical and ecological; the agri‐milieu; institutional and operational; the human potential; and technology.

This paper discusses previous and present development trends, and reviews the interrelated problems of use of physical resources, the agri‐milieu, human resources, institutional problems and technology.

Suggestions are made for a co‐ordinated strategy at national and local level aimed at removing some of the present barriers and constraints to agricultural and rural development.     

Theoretical and methodological guidelines for research on the development of Southern Africa∗

The aim of this article is to give a broad and fairly uncomplicated overview of two main aspects of developmental thinking with the purpose of proposing a framework within which development research could be coherently structured and hopefully advanced.

The first aspect concerns development theories. These are categorised as the orthodox, political economy and counter‐modernisation approaches. From an overview, certain conclusions are drawn and presented as possible guidelines for the structuring of research.

The second aspect attempts to highlight certain methodological implications of doing research which aims at improving the lot of the poor. It is stressed that this may imply certain uncomfortable reversals in what researchers should focus on.     

Book briefs

G Antonelli and A Quadrio‐Curzio (eds) The agro‐technological system towards 2000 North Holland.

W J Baumol Superfairness: Applications and theory The MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1986

E Boonzaier and J Sharp (eds) South African keywords: The uses and abuses of political concepts David Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg, 1988

C Bryant (ed) Poverty, policy, and food security in Southern Africa Lynne Rienner Publishers. Boulder, Colorado, 1988

J Butler. R Elphick and D Welsh (eds) Democratic liberalism in South Africa: Its history and prospect David Philip, Cape Town and Johannesburg. 1987

D P Chaudhri and A J Dasgupta Agriculture and the development process: a study of Punjab Croom Helm, London, 1985

R Cohen (ed) Satisfying Africa's food needs: Food production and commercialization in African agriculture Lynne Rienner Publishers. Boulder/London, 1988

J M Conrad and C W Clark Natural resource economics: Notes and problems Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987

D E Janvry and K Subbarao Agricultural price policy and income distribution in India Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1986     

Conservation of natural resources and rural development: The work of the Institute of Natural Resources

The concept of the Institute of Natural Resources, attached to the University of Natal but funded largely by the private sector, is the only one of its kind in Africa. Its services are seen as being vitally important and urgently needed. Through its endeavours greater awareness has been created that the African rural areas require urgent rehabilitation and development.

Through its various research programmes and practical rural development projects, the Institute is involved in land capability analysis in various parts of KwaZulu, and in formulating sustainable land use strategies which emphasize job creation and food production while conserving natural resources and reclaiming those areas in danger of ecological collapse.

In conjunction with this research and practical work, attention is being given to the establishment of a computer‐based geographic information system, promotion of public awareness of the socio‐economic and environmental problems facing Natal/KwaZulu, and assistance with the co‐ordination of planning in the region.