CONSUMERS’ VIEWS ON RESTRICTING IMPORTED APPAREL

The United States and most developed countries have experienced a dramatic influx of imported apparel, usually from low-wage, developing countries. In the U.S., industry representatives, retailers, economists, and others have been vocal in expressing their views to influence trade negotiations aimed at orderly trade in this commodity area. Consumers are affected by trade agreements but appear never to have been consulted previously regarding the restriction of imported apparel. This paper gives results of a telephone survey of 408 consumers in 10 areas of the eastern U.S. to ascertain their views toward apparel imports. Overall, respondents expressed strong preference for domestically produced apparel. A majority of the consumers perceived a trade deficit in apparel, saw imports as damaging to the domestic industry, felt that stronger laws should be passed to further restrict imported apparel, and said their clothing purchases were influenced by their views toward limiting imports. Chi-square tests determined relationships among the variables. A noteworthy contradiction was present in the findings. If further restrictions on imports were to become a reality, as the consumers said they would prefer, this means that respondents expressed loyalty to the domestic industry at the expense of being able to make choices which might be most advantageous to them as consumers.     

EFFECT OF TEXTILE QUOTA RESTRICTIONS ON U.S. COTTON TEXTILE IMPORTS BETWEEN 1964 AND 1973

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of U.S. cotton textile quotas on cotton textiles imported into the U.S. between 1964 and 1973. The findings showed that cotton imports requiring more processing stages had significantly greater 10-year average prices than other groups. Changes in the dollar value of imported cotton textiles during the decade have mainly occurred because of an increase in the average prices rather than resulting from a redistribution of imports from low to high average price groups. The weakening correlation between changes in the dollar value and in the quantity of high unit value groups indicated that the control on quantity has not precluded increases in total dollar value of imports in higher processing stages, especially since 1970. Since fabrics with a relatively stable average price accounted for the major importation of cotton textiles during the 1964–1973 period, the overall control by quantity in this decade was still quite good, even though average prices of apparel were rising.     

Does attitude predict purchase behaviour of apparel products?

During the 1980s the world market in textile and apparel products has become increasingly internationalized. Retailers in Western Europe and North America import goods from around the world, often at the expense of domestic manufacturers. In an effort to encourage consumers to buy locally manufactured products, associations in several countries have tried to change consumer attitudes toward domestically produced textiles and apparel. The goal of this study was to assess the relationship between consumer attitude and consumer behaviour in an apparel purchase. Intercept surveys were conducted with 3,766 consumers in nine locations in the eastern U.S.A. Consumers were questioned about their attitudes toward domestic versus imported clothing and their awareness of the country of origin of their purchase. Reasons for purchase and demographic information were also collected. Some differences between variables were found related to sex, age and geographic location. While it was evident that a large proportion of the consumers sampled said they cared whether the clothing they purchased was domestically produced or imported, a far smaller proportion was aware of the country of origin of the garment just purchased. Therefore, a consistent link between consumers' professed attitudes and their buying behaviour could not be established. Summary and conclusions The consistency of consumer attitudes with consumer behaviour was assessed for a sample of U.S.A. apparel purchasers. Respondents in the eastern U.S.A. were asked about their awareness of and concern with their garment's place of production. Although some differences were found related to sex, age and geographic location, the lack of consistency between attitudes and behaviour was a common phenomenon. Of the total sample, only 20% professed both concern and awareness of their garment's country of origin. In contrast, 60% knew of the ‘Crafted with Pride’ campaign, 44% expressed concern for place of production, and 28% said they knew where the garment just acquired had been manufactured. These relatively low percentages may be due in part to the demographics of the consumers surveyed. This study included a high proportion of females, young and middle-age shoppers. This sample composition is consistent with other research citing these groups as the most frequent apparel purchasers. The results of this study indicate that the oldest age groups and male shoppers are most likely to be aware and concerned. This suggests that those wanting to change attitudes and/or behaviour need to target the groups most likely to be spending on apparel, females, young and middle-age groups. These consumers appear to be the least motivated by patriotic appeals or to base purchase decisions on cues such as country of origin. People from the south, who were more likely to be directly affected by the textile industry, generally were more aware, expressed a higher level of concern, and were more likely to know of the ‘Crafted with Pride’ campaign. Since the south has not been selectively targeted by the ‘Crafted with Pride’ Council, it is very possible that the demographics and personal link of southerners to the apparel and textile industries may be more influential than the Council's media campaign. While it is true that concern, awareness, and knowledge of the campaign are highly correlated, what has not been determined is the causal relationship between these three variables. Does knowledge of the campaign cause one to care more and therefore be more likely to be aware? Or does caring make consumers more susceptible to patriotic appeals and more likely to say they are aware when they really may not be? It has been determined that people who are aware are more likely to care and know of the campaign; it has not been determined that people with knowledge of the campaign will be more aware and therefore guided in their purchase decisions. The intense media campaign by the ‘Crafted with Pride’ Council suggests that the level of concern for domestic clothing production may be influenced by the level of marketing effort. However, the Council's expected behavioural effect of raising the number of potential clothing buyers who actively seek out and purchase American-made apparel was not displayed by respondents in this study. Since it is consumers who ultimately make the final purchase decision, industry representatives and legislators should examine more closely the link between attitudes and action before making production and public policy decisions that will have significant economic effects on all parties concerned.     

TRADE POLICY STRATEGIES AND ENFORCEMENT CHOICES: An Examination of the 1992 Steel Antidumping Cases

Recent U.S. textile and apparel imports were examined at a detailed product level to assess factors explaining the level of non-tariff trade barriers (NTBs). Determinants of NTBs at the micro level were consistent with prior studies utilizing more aggregated data. Import penetration, per unit import cost, import quantity change, import value, and product type were significant variables in explaining the variability of import controls.     

Retailers and apparel imports: variables associated with relative proportions of imports carried

Purposes of this exploratory study were: (i) to determine retailers' views toward imported apparel, (ii) to gain insight into retailers' reasons for carrying imported apparel, and (iii) to examine variables associated with relative proportions of imported apparel carried in stock. Interviewers surveyed 191 retailers in the eastern U.S.A., using a structured telephone interview. Data analysis included chi-square tests of association and frequency distributions. The proportion of stock retailers reported to be imported was cross-tabulated with a number of variables. Results gave insight into retailers' reasons for carrying imported apparel, although a majority appeared to favour domestic apparel; results also indicated some of the problems associated with carrying foreign-made goods. Results can be useful to manufacturers in their efforts to counter retailers' trend to carry increasing quantities of imported apparel and to educators preparing graduates for employment in this sensitive sector.     

Labour market adjustment to third-party competition: Evidence from Mexico

China's exports reduce wages in importing countries, but few studies have looked at competition in third-party markets. We examine labour market outcomes in Mexico's apparel and textile sectors associated with US apparel and textile imports from China. Using data on US imports in conjunction with quarterly Mexican labour force surveys, we show that US imports from China are associated with a reduction of employment in Mexico's apparel and textile sectors. These effects are the most pronounced for the least educated. Wages were not impacted on net except for possibly the poorest which would indicate stronger local labour market ties in the left tail of the wage distribution. Finally, the effects of trade-induced demand shocks dissipate after about two quarters indicating low firm-level adjustment costs.     

中日纺织服装产业合作博弈分析

中国与日本同为东北亚的两个纺织强国,在国际出口环境不断恶化的条件下,中日两国纺织服装产业开展合作,对扩大两国内需、促进两国经济增长及调整我国纺织服装产业结构具有重要意义。本文结合影响中日纺织服装产业发展的具体因素,建立合作博弈模型,对中日纺织服装合作需要满足的充分必要条件进行分析,并对合作的可行性进行了验证,得出结论认为合作博弈是中日纺织服装产业的最优选择。     

Welfare Analysis of the Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement: The Cotton Textile and Apparel Industries

This article studies the effects of the Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (US-CAFTA-DR) on the world fiber market using a partial equilibrium modeling approach. We find the effect of the agreement on the U.S. cotton yarn and Caribbean cotton apparel industries to be positive while the U.S. cotton apparel industry suffers significant losses. Cotton apparel producers in the Caribbean region gain approximately $80 million under US-CAFTA-DR while gains by the U.S. yarn industry average about $120 million over current trade arrangements. The U.S. cotton apparel industry loses about $40 million per year under US-CAFTA-DR.     

U.S. textile and apparel faculty members and their work environments

The study examined textile and apparel faculty members' perceptions of their work environment in the context of demographic variables. A better understanding of current textile and apparel work environment perceptions can be used by faculty members to recruit new staff; increase the advancement, satisfaction and retention of current staff; and provide graduate students who are considering a position in higher education with realistic expectation. A total of 337 International Textile and Apparel Association (ITAA) members participated in the study by completing the Work Environment Scale and a demographic questionnaire. (The ITAA is a global organization of textile and apparel faculty members that is U.S. based but has members from most regions of the world.) Multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine whether a relationship existed between the work environment measures and demographic variables. A significant relationship was found between the perceptions of work environment and the demographic variables of academic rank, level of education and size of institution.     

Export Growth Slows Down

In November of 2005, China and the U.S. signed a bilateral agreement on textiles, launching the three-year quota control for 21 sorts of textile products. In 2007, the second year for the implementation of the agreement, China＇s textile export to the U.S. underwent several changes.     

Problems and Opportunities in the Textile and Apparel Industry:

Korean and U.S. textile and apparel manufacturers were surveyed to determine what were their perceptions of major industry problems and opportunities in their respective countries. Findings suggest that Korean manufacturers differed significantly from U.S. manufacturers in their perceptions of technology, government policies, and trends in industry concentration as major problems confronting their industry. The two groups also differed on their perceptions of product quality, production and efficiency, flexibility in production, and product lines as posing major opportunities for the future. These results are discussed in light of the changing situation within the international market for textile and apparel products.     

Imports,monopoly power,profits and exchange rates

This study uses pooled data on U.S. manufacturing industries and on U.S. imports to analyze the level of monopoly power and the restraining influence of the import penetration ratio at the industry level. In general, industries with higher levels of imports have lower levels of monopoly power. In addition, imports have a greater impact on industries with more monopoly power (i.e., higher concentration), even though the level of imports may be lower. Finally, the impact of imports on monopoly power appears to be increasing over time indicating that U.S. manufacturing has become significantly more competitive over the 1961 to 1984 period. (JEL F14, L12)     

Competitive pressure,innovation and trade protection: Evidence from US patent data

Recent theoretical models have suggested that the relationship between competition and innovation may best be characterised as an inverted‐U shape: firms in industries with low levels of competition are more likely to innovate in the wake of increased competition as they attempt to escape competition, while those in highly competitive industries will decrease innovation in the wake of increased competition as the profit incentive to innovate dissipates. Results from other studies have found positive as well as negative relationships between innovation and competition. In a parallel literature, trade economists have produced conflicting results regarding the impact of trade liberalisation on innovation. One stream of research has shown that increased access to imported intermediate goods increases productivity, suggesting a positive relationship between imports and innovation. Others have hypothesised that firms may use the technology embodied in intermediate inputs as a substitute for domestic innovation. In this paper, we merge these divergent literatures and investigate whether innovation, as measured by the production of patents by US manufacturers, has been impacted by market competition and tariff reductions. Our empirical findings indicate that insulation from imports in the form of higher tariffs on final goods was associated with innovation until the late 1980s, while falling tariffs on intermediate goods appear to have facilitated innovation during the 1990s. We also find evidence of the inverted U‐shaped relationship between market competition and innovation.     

Purchasing environmentally sustainable apparel: The attitudes and intentions of female Kuwaiti consumers

The purpose of this study is to examine relationships among knowledge, environmental concern, attitudes about environmentally sustainable apparel (ESA) and ESA purchasing behaviours of Kuwaiti women. This was accomplished by surveying 236 participants using four preexisting scales, measuring knowledge about the impact of manufacturing apparel and textile products on the environment, levels of concern about environmental degradation, feelings about clothing that is environmentally sustainable and ESA purchase intentions. Data analysis determined several findings. First, female Kuwaiti nationals showed a low level of knowledge about the environmental impacts of the apparel and textile industry. The participants also held neutral attitudes of environmental concern and neutral attitudes towards ESA. Finally, despite their knowledge and attitudes, the participants did have positive intentions to purchase ESA in the future. To produce, market and sell ESA effectively in Kuwait, the conclusions from this study are important for manufacturers and retailers of ESA products. Kuwait provides a large market for apparel goods and this study is a contribution to a better understanding of consumers and ESA in that market.     

我国国际贸易中环境成本转移的实证分析

本文从环境成本转移的概念出发,利用统计数据,计算我国进出口贸易中的环境成本,进而分析贸易对环境的影响。结果表明,污染密集型产业的产品出口在我国占主要优势,且出口增长加重了对环境的污染。在进口贸易中,化学工业、采矿业、塑料、橡胶制品业和金属制品业的净进口向国外转移了最多的环境成本;纺织业与电气机械及器材制造业产品的净出口则向我国转移了最多的环境成本。     

规则的背后:美国对华实施首次反补贴调查剖析

美国在2005年颁布《美国贸易权利执行法案》后,将反补贴的国内立法适用到包括中国在内的所谓非市场经济体的输美产品。贸易救济权是平等赋予世贸组织所有成员的,仅仅从规则本身来看,美国对华实施反补贴调查于法有据。但它是在美国对华贸易保护主义定势思维的惯性下启动的,是与《补贴与反补贴措施协议》倡导的公平贸易的精神背道而驰的。规则背后隐藏着贸易保护主义动机的对华贸易壁垒。     

China's Import and Export of Textiles and Apparel in the Q1

China's textile and apparel industry suffered an unprecedented cold market for exports in the first quarter this year,the result of a few factors including: the appreciating RMB, decreasing export rebate rate,expanding influence of the U.S. subprime crisis, increasing costs of production and rising labor cost.     

基于污染的中美贸易实证研究

从污染排放视角考察了2004年中美26个工业产业的进出口贸易,结果显示,尽管中国出口美国单位产值的污染强度低于进口单位产值的污染强度,但由于中美贸易的不平衡,中国向美国出口产品的污染物排放总量远超出了进口产品的污染物排放量,表明中美贸易不平衡恶化了中国环境,需要从贸易产生的环境利益角度综合评价贸易顺差。     

DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS OF ASIA'S APPAREL INDUSTRY

People in many parts of the world depend upon the manufacture of textile and apparel products for their livelihood. The status of these two closely related industries has a major impact on the economic health of many countries, both large and small. In fact, the growth of the textile and apparel industry may be one of the strongest, most reliable indicators of a developing country's economic development. Further, the level of sophistication of production in this industry may be viewed as a ‘barometer’ of the level of technological progress in a country. For this reason the developmental patterns of Asia's apparel industry are studied.     

Outsourcing and the US Labour Market

There is worldwide concern about the vulnerability of the current labour force to displacement by future imported services. In the USA, some have suggested that as much as one‐third of the workforce might be vulnerable to such outsourcing. However, the labour market impacts of this displacement are difficult to assess using purely analytical or statistical approaches. In this paper, simulation methods are used to understand how sensitive the US economy and labour market are to increases in services imports. Specifically, the scenario examined assumes that the share of imported services in total employment increases from 0.8 per cent to 7.25 per cent over a time horizon in which workers are unable to change occupations. In response, it is found that all industries increase their use of imported services and their use of the composite input that is comprised of imported services and tradable labour. With the exception of legal workers, all workers in tradable occupations experience declines in their real wages. Demand for non‐tradable occupations labour rises in the industries that expand the most, while demand falls in shrinking industries. The non‐tradable occupations that are used intensively in the shrinking industries experience declines in real wages, while the real wages rise for workers in non‐tradable occupations used intensively in the expanding industries.