Boy/girl differences in household work

Ordinary least squares multiple regression was used to model time spent in household work by children, aged 6–19, in 2,100 two-parent, two-child households in 11 states. First-born boys and girls and second-born boys and girls were analysed separately. Whether the data were collected on a schoolday was not significant in predicting all children's time in household work. Own age in both linear and quadratic forms was significant in explaining time of first-born boys and second-born girls, while living in a rural area was significant for second-born girls only. First-born boys were found to contribute significantly less time to household work than first-born girls.     

Nine-nation typology: application to adolescent time use

In The Nine Nations of North America Garreau¹ argues that the North American continent is not so much three countries as it is nine distinctly different cultural regions. The purpose of this research was to compare the time use of North American adolescents by these regions of residence in North America. The time spent in household work, school work and leisure was consistently explained by the weekday/weekend variable and urban/rural area of residence. An interaction between the weekday variable and North American region of residence in the model for time spent in leisure activities may indicate some significant differences.     

Economic and social correlates of female employment and fertility

This study tested a theoretical model that views female employment and fertility decisions as jointly determined by biologic, sociologic, economic, and demographic factors that determine the circumstances of individual women, families, and the labor market. The data were drawn from a multistage stratified sample of 1926 married women of childbearing age in southern Philippines. The independent variables analyzed included the exogenous wage rates of both the wife and husband, the age of the wife, the number of children ever born per year of marriage, and residence (urban or rural). Also analyzed were the social variables of time conflict, normative conflict, work commitment, and wife's relative dominance in household decision making. An exogenous change in female wage rates increased the percent of time spent in paid employment but had an insignificant effect on fertility. In contrast, a change in the male wage rate reduce female employment and current fertility. Women in municipal poblacions had lower current fertility and significantly higher labor force participation than women in rural or urban settings. Women who perceived that children interfere with work were more likely to bear a child in the study period and less likely to participate in the labor force. The husband's attitude toward female employment reduced labor force participation, but did not increase current fertility. Finally, women who play a major role in household decision making had both increased labor force participation and increased fertility. There was some variation in these trends by age cohort. A positive coefficient of the female wage on fertility was observed among women 20-29 and 40-49 years, while a negative coefficient existed for women 30-39 years. It is concluded that a common set of economic and social factors jointly determine current female employment and fertility decisions.     

Time as a Direct Source of Utility: The Case of Price Information Search for Groceries

A “joint production” model that combines aspects of household production and the economics of information is formulated to explain variation in time spent in price information search for groceries by dual earner households. Enjoyment of search time, a psychological variable, is incorporated into the model. Empirical estimation using grocery expenditure data indicates that enjoyment, income, age, the price of search time, presence of young and teenage children, daily use of a microwave oven, and the percentage of a market basket filled with name brand items are significant factors in explaining variation in time spent in price information search.     

Satisfaction with household production: the effect of time spent in household production by husbands and wives

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between the extent of household production and satisfaction with household production. Data were obtained from 400 married couples who responded to a postal questionnaire. The dependent variable was an index of satisfaction incorporating two aspects of household production, quality and quantity. Regression analysis indicated that of the three variables representing the extent of household production in the model — hours spent by each spouse in household production and an activity index to measure the number of household production activities — only husband's hours spent in household production demonstrated a significant, independent effect. Other significant variables included husband's hours of market work, household net worth, age of respondent and gender of respondent. Two significant interactions indicated that (i) the relationship between wife's hours of household production and satisfaction with household production differed according to the gender of the respondent, and (ii) the relationship of husband's hours of market work and satisfaction differed according to the age of the respondent.     

Spatial behaviour of rural consumer households in highly developed economies. Survey results for Western Germany

This contribution attempts to identify effects of residential location of rural family households on their economic behaviour. Economic behaviour is understood to be reflected in the total spectrum of income and allocation of household resources. A holistic approach must go beyond activity on the labour and consumer markets and include non-market (‘informal’) activities of household members, taking into account domestic production of goods and services, interaction within social networks, the use of public commercial infrastructure, etc. The cost of living depends, among other things, on patterns of consumption, on regional price levels for consumer breadbaskets, as well as on costs involved in reaching public and commercial points of distribution. These factors result themselves from the interplay of economic forces giving rise to identifiable ‘economic territories’ and ‘market areas’ and ultimately to observable consumptive behaviour and ‘activity spaces’ of individual private households. Since data was available only for our rural survey households, comparative analysis of locational aspects was limited to consumption expenditures for which data could be found in administrative statistics for households in urban and periurban areas. The rural survey sample was found to have a higher average level and a different structure of expenditures when compared with their non-rural counterparts. At the same time, a preliminary effort was made in our own rural survey sample to determine the importance of non-market consumption for rural households. This included household consumption of domestic self-services (‘housework’), the utility value of owner-occupied dwellings, do-it-yourself production of substitutes for commercial goods and services, and exchanges within social networks. Results of this initial investigation of non-market elements of the household economy indicated that they were very important for the household's level-of-living and that they had a potential for compensating inequalities due to different degrees of access to market resources. Household strategies for optimizing their resource allocation to both market and non-market consumption were also examined. In general, ‘objective’ criteria and ‘subjective’ assessments by the survey households with respect to living conditions in rural Western Germany were found to give a positive image of rural life; however, differences in resource allocation strategies for market consumption between urban and rural households having been confirmed above, the question remains for future research about possible locational differences in household acquisition and use of non-market resources.     

Examining the impact of consumer debt on parent-child interaction

The purpose of this study was to examine the possible relationship between consumer debt and several aspects of parent-child interaction, namely time spent by parents with their child(ren). affectionate interaction between parents and children and disciplinary parent-child interaction. A small, positive relationship was found between consumer debt and disciplinary parent-child interaction. No meaningful relationship was found between consumer debt and parental time spent with child(ren) or affectionate parental-child interaction. Age and number of children are more reliable correlates of parent-child interaction than is amount of household consumer debt.     

社会基本医疗保险对家庭消费的影响

文章利用北京大学CFPS调查2010、2012年两期平衡面板数据,以双重差分-倾向匹配法构造了反实事分析框架,估计基本医疗保险对家庭消费支出的影响。研究结果显示,医保政策对于居民消费具有促进作用,医保带动农村消费的同时也加重了农村家庭医疗支出负担;从分收入层次看,医保对于农村低收入家庭的消费支出正向影响显著且大于城镇低收入家庭。     

PRODUCTIVE TIME OF HOUSEHOLD HEADS

This study is an analysis of the utility value of time. Time is viewed on a productivity continuum with activities that result in measurable products such as income or home sewing at one extreme of the continuum and activities such as sleep at the other extreme. The use of time by unemployed and employed heads of households was the basis for this analysis. Four measures of time were constructed to determine the amount of time spent in market, household, leisure and personal activities. Unemployed heads of households spent more time in household and leisure activities than employed heads. Assuming that household activities have productive value, time spent in child care, shopping, house cleaning, etc., were viewed as having utility value for the household. Thus, reallocated time had utility value for the household. In addition, it was found that a significant relationship existed between employment status and use of time, regardless of position on the productivity continuum. From this study comes a better understanding of how time is reallocated during unemployment so that the economic loss for the household as well as the economy can be minimized.     

Husbands' and wives' household work: moving towards egalitarianism?

Whether husbands are increasing their time in household tasks, especially when their wives are employed, has been a topic of debate in recent years. Several studies have found that husbands are participating in more child care now than in the past. But are husbands also doing other tasks now? Is there any relationship between the amounts of time that husbands and wives allocate to various household tasks? Are there any weekday versus weekend differences? A small sample of husbands and wives recorded their time spent in various activities for 7 consecutive days. The findings reveal that wives spent more time in general doing household tasks than did their husbands. Employed wives and their husbands both decreased their total time in household work, compared with full-time homemakers and their husbands. At weekends, however, both employed wives and homemakers decreased their overall time in household work while the husbands increased theirs. The t-test revealed that at weekends there were no significant differences in the times allocated to various household tasks by employed wives and their husbands, and significant differences only in time spent in child care and food preparation/clean-up by homemakers and their spouses. There appears to be a more egalitarian approach by husbands and wives to household tasks at weekends than on weekdays, even when the wives are not employed. Although these findings should not be generalized to the population, they indicate an intriguing possible trend which deserves further investigation.     

微观与宏观经济利益的冲突——农户兼业经营的均衡分析

以生产可能性曲线与收入预算线为工具 ,分析农户达到生产者均衡状态的必要条件。研究表明 ,农户兼业经营导致了微观与宏观经济利益相悖。解决这些问题的有效途径是扩大农业经营规模 ,加快农民身份转换 ,提高农产品交易的组织化程度     

Explaining Gender Differences in Housework Time in Germany

This study evaluates couples’ time use behaviour with regard to housework in Germany with data from the 2001/2002 and 1991/1992 German Time Use Survey. Despite the fact that women reduced their hours worked within the household context over the past decades, the unequal division of housework between men and women still persists. This study aims both at analysing the determinants of the allocation of time spent on housework, as well as why gender differences in household time use behaviour still exist. With the aid of structural equation modelling, it is shown that the decrease in time spent on housework by women can largely be explained by changes in the effects that wages, household goods consumption and the aspiration for market goods consumption have on time spent on housework. Men’s time allocation behaviour has remained remarkably constant. It is also observed that women’s time allocation behaviour with regard to household work is becoming more similar to that of men.     

Understanding household consumption patterns in Pakistan

This study analyzes the household consumption patterns in urban and rural regions using Household Integrated Expenditure Survey of Pakistan for the year 2001–2002. Engel curves are estimated by spline quadratic expenditure system for expenditures on 18 commodity groups. The breakdown of the household size into demographic groups by age and sex has proved to be a successful exercise in explaining consumption patterns. This study shows that consumption of food and non-food items is significantly affected by changes in total expenditure and household size. According to the findings of the current study, grains, dairy, housing and health appear as luxury commodities in urban areas while poultry, fruit, electricity, entertainment and durables are treated as luxuries in the rural area. Moreover, poverty has proved to be a main cause of illiteracy because education appears as a luxury commodity for the poor.     

关于人口城市化劳动力转移的思考——兼谈户籍制度改革的障碍和建议

在中国城市化进程中,面对骤然激增的农民工流向大中城市的现实,政府虽采取了以小城镇为主的户籍制度改革来缓解矛盾,但农村劳动力转移到城市后所遇到的主要障碍还在于至今尚未得到根本性改革的户籍制度.三农问题的症结是城市化滞后和制度创新的迟滞.要解决三农问题,就要消除不利于城市化发展的体制和政治障碍,把户籍改革扩大到城市;建立完善法律法规体系;建立全国统一的劳动力流动制度.     

The use of human resources of women in Turkey

The use of human resources of women in rural and urban areas in Turkey was studied using the responses from 284 households. The findings suggested that women in both rural and urban areas have skills such as sewing, embroidery and knitting and that only a small number of them use their skills for generating income from home. Women spend most of their time doing housework and looking after children. However, there were many statistically significant differences between women from different areas. In general, women in urban areas, who tended to be better educated, favoured personal fulfilment more than women in rural areas, but in both areas women placed more value on their traditional domestic roles.     

Homemakers' household-work time in single-parent and two-parent families

The purpose of this study was to determine if a significant difference existed between single-parent family homemakers and two-parent family homemakers regarding the amount of time spent in selected household tasks. The examination of the impacts of selected socio-demographic variables on the amount of time spent in total household work and the component tasks by the homemakers was also a part of this study.     

日本经济起飞时期农村劳动力供给机制研究

20世纪60年代,伴随着日本经济起飞,城市加工产业对劳动力的需求急剧扩大,在城乡巨大收入差距的诱惑下,日本农村的青壮年劳动力大量涌入城市,造成农村劳动力严重短缺,在农户家庭内部劳动力互补机制的作用下,缓解了劳动力不足,在一定程度上稳定了农业生产。从分析日本经济起飞时期农村劳动力的结构变动入手,通过实证分析把握劳动力供给结构变化的经济影响;进而分析未来日本劳动力供给结构变化的趋势,在此基础上结合中国的实际情况说明农村劳动力互补机制对于城市化进程中中国农村的借鉴意义。     

Child–mother nutrition and health status in rural Kenya: the role of intra‐household resource allocation and education

There exists gender bias in resource ownership in many parts of Kenya with women being more disadvantaged. Resource ownership and control within the household has differential impacts on the health and overall well‐being of male and female members. This paper examines intra‐household resource ownership and how it affects nutrition and health status of household members. Data from a household survey containing detailed gender‐disaggregated information on resource ownership as well as food and anthropometry were collected from a rural Kenyan district and used in the analysis. Results showed that male members of the household had more access to education, income and land than the females. Mothers’ education, household income, frequency of illness and nutrient intake were the most important factors that contributed to the nutritional status of children. The education and household’s economic status were important determinants of child morbidity. Malnutrition and poor health of children and women is linked to the existing poverty in the study region, therefore emphasis needs to be put on eradication of discrimination against women in accessing education and accessing land, which will contribute to an increase in household incomes. Government policies need to focus on promotion of nutrition education through adult education programmes and incorporating it in the school curricula. Improvement of health‐care facilities in rural areas is also paramount to improving health and nutrition in these areas.     

Children’s Labor Market Involvement,Household Work,and Welfare: A Brazilian Case Study

The large numbers of children working in developing countries continue to provoke calls for an end to such employment. However, many reformers argue that efforts should focus on ending the exploitation of children rather than depriving them of all opportunities to work. This posture reflects recognition of the multiplicity of needs children have and the diversity of situations in which they work. Unfortunately, research typically neglects these complexities and fails to distinguish between types of labor market jobs, dismisses household chores as irrelevant, and conceptualizes children’s needs largely in terms of the education they require for successful careers. Based on data collected in schools in Franca, Brazil, where children often combine school with work in the shoe industry, this study first examined the implications of labor market jobs and household work for their health, life satisfaction, and education. Analyses suggested that both forms of work negatively affected children’s welfare, but the effects of household work were more extensive, especially for girls. The second part focused on children with labor market jobs and examined how facets of their jobs as well as their after-work household duties affected their welfare. A lack of discretion on the job undermined the health of both boys and girls, higher pay adversely affected boys’ education, and housework had detrimental effects on all indicators of girls’ welfare. This paper discusses the implications of these findings for further research and suggests the needs for attention to different forms of work activities within families. It concludes with suggestions for multinationals sourcing in developing areas that go beyond the usual calls for ridding their facilities and supply networks of child workers.     

Pattern of childhood falls in a low-income setting: a cross-sectional study in Dar es Salaam

The objective was to determine patterns and circumstances of childhood falls in a low-income setting in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. This cross sectional study is based on a household survey conducted in July 2009.

A total of 3927 children up to age 18 from 1928 households in 15 sampled wards were surveyed through a structured questionnaire. The current study includes information regarding fall occurrence, socio-demographic and economic factors. Data were analysed using chi-square, t-test and logistic regression. Male children had 42% higher odds of falls compared to females, and rural residents had more than two times higher odds compared to urban residents. Falls occurred three times more among age group 1–4 and two times more among age group 5–9 compared to those between 15 and 18 years. Most falls occurred outdoors (62%) while playing (51%) with boys being over-represented. Females and children aged 1–4 years fell more from stairs whereas most infants fell from furniture. Male gender, younger age groups and rural residence were significant factors for fall injuries. The circumstances in which these falls occur also differ significantly. Intervention efforts should emphasise these patterns.