Heritage tourism and livelihood sustainability of a resettled rural community: Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site,China

Tourism and related development can lead to the displacement and resettlement of communities, disrupting local livelihood systems, socio-political processes and organizations. However, limited attention has been paid to community resettlement in the tourism context. Taking Yinhuwan village at Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site in China as an example, this study examines the results of tourism and resettlement on the livelihoods of this rural community and the extent to which tourism-related livelihood strategies contribute to community livelihood sustainability. A sustainable livelihood framework is adopted to guide the analysis. Face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with management officials, community leaders and village residents through three field investigations in 2013. It was found that traditional livelihood methods have been largely replaced by tourism, which has become the primary livelihood strategy for the resettled community. Despite current economic benefits, high dependency on tourism-related opportunities as the single livelihood option may diminish the sustainability of local livelihoods. The current resettlement plan highlights short-term economic impacts on the affected community, overlooking their socio-cultural concerns and long-term livelihood sustainability. Possible measures are discussed to diversify livelihood options and mitigate potential challenges for the affected community so as to ensure their long-term benefits and increase future options.     

Assessing the economic impact of a UNESCO World Heritage designation

Grand Pré Historic Site in Nova Scotia (Canada) is in the process of applying for a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (WHS) designation. Conventional wisdom is that such a designation would generate public awareness and increase visitation to the site. The goal of this paper is to estimate the impact of a WHS designation on tourist visitation and related expenditures. Various tourism statistics (covering 1990–2008) for Nova Scotia and its only other established UNESCO site – Lunenburg (designated in 1995) – served as data. Regression analysis produced an estimate of the tourist visitation impact that a WHS designation had on Lunenburg, and could be expected to have on Grand Pré. An increase of 6.2% in tourist visitors due to a WHS designation was estimated. Survey data collected at Grand Pré provided average spending per visitor. The economic impacts were analyzed under both a projected and a historical scenario of visitation. Based on its 10-year historic visitation average, a WHS designation for Grand Pré would generate an increase of 3000 visitors per year. These visitors would generate spending of approximately $200,000 annually in the local economy. Such spending would provide a boost to the local tourism industry, which has experienced significant decline in recent years.     

World Heritage Listing and the Evolving Issues Related to Tourism and Heritage: Cases from Australia and New Zealand

The relationship between heritage and tourism at Word Heritage Sites is thought to be particularly problematic. Yet, each year more heritage sites gain this status. This paper explores the issues that emerge between tourism and heritage at two heritage sites, one with World Heritage listing and the other embarking on the application process. Interview data were collected in relation to the Royal Exhibition Buildings and Carlton Gardens (REB), Australia and Oamaru's Historic Precinct, New Zealand; secondary data were used to contextualise the findings. The findings of the two case studies indicate that the process, and outcomes, of World Heritage (WH) status influence the nature of the relationship between heritage and tourism. The findings of this case study analysis indicated that prospect of WH listing seems to be a catalyst for decision-making and developing networks between the various stakeholders of heritage and tourism, but heritage stakeholders seem to be grappling for power at this time. Once the listing process is successful, heritage then seems to gain the balance of power, and tourism seems to be less successful in controlling the situation. Further research is warranted on this topic to explore whether the findings from two sites can be generalised to other heritage sites.     

World Heritage Site selection in sensitive areas: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The legacy of UNESCO World Heritage (WH) designation is renowned and for that reason is subject to increased visitor arrivals. This research-based article examines the issues associated with the selection of WH sites in one among the most remote and sensitive environments of the world, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India (ANI). It explores the benefits of sustainable tourism development and conservation measures that the designation could bring to the ANI. The appropriate research methods adopted to consult a wide range of stakeholders are discussed while addressing the challenges facing the potential properties. This article was written from outside of the official WH designation process.     

Promoting Gondwana: presentation of the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia World Heritage Area in tourist brochures

An 800 km stretch of the Eastern coast of Australia contains some of the last remnant fragments of the sub-tropical rainforests that once covered much of the region. This natural resource – declared as World Heritage in 1986 as the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves of Australia, but now known as the Gondwana Rainforests of Australia – serves as an important drawcard for tourist visitation to the region. Using a content analysis of 343 tourism brochures collected across one section of the Gondwana Rainforests area, this study examined the extent to which ‘rainforest’, ‘World Heritage’ and the ‘Gondwana Rainforests’ are present within text and imagery. Findings reveal a low prevalence of this ‘branding’; indeed only 3% of brochures mention ‘Gondwana’ or ‘Gondwana Rainforests’. As presentation is a key component of World Heritage-listed forests like Gondwana, the study's results reveal the importance of building awareness of the brand in the minds of users and the community.     

The search for World Heritage brand awareness beyond the iconic heritage: a case study of the Historic Centre of Macao

The Historic Centre of Macao was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site (WHS) in 2005. The question arises regarding the value of the designation ‘WHS’ and what it means to tourists who visit. The researchers used intercept surveys and participant observation to determine brand awareness among visitors. Regardless of how much the tourism industry and UNESCO promote the ‘brand’, if visitors are unaware of it and do not respond, the economic and cultural values may be negatively affected.

The results showed the average visitor had only a vague understanding of WHS and it was not a major motivator for their visit. However, the general theme of culture was of high interest, as was a visit to the must-see icon attraction of St Paul's Ruins (the highlight of the Historic Centre of Macao). That is, there appears to be a good level of cultural and heritage awareness but minimal WHS awareness.     

The Influence of Visitors' Awareness of World Heritage Listings: A Case Study of Huangshan,Xidi and Hongcun in Southern Anhui,China

This research used Huangshan, Xidi and Hongcun in southern Anhui (China) as a case to study the impact of World Heritage List (WHL) status on international visitors. The study categorised all the visitors into two types – WHL aware and WHL unaware – based on awareness levels of the World Heritage status of the destination. The two groups were compared in terms of visit purposes, socio-demographics and other characteristics. The results showed that the World Heritage List status did have an impact on travellers' visit decisions. Additionally, the World Heritage List status proved to be related to tourists' visit purposes, activity patterns and socio-demographic characteristics. However, the World Heritage List status will be a more influential tool for destinations when marketers place emphasis on the underlying cultural contents of sites and make the cultural elements accessible and interpretable for international visitors.     

The Bigger They Are,the Harder They Fall! Sustainable Tourism Planning at Naracoorte Caves World Heritage Site,Australia

The Australian National Heritage and Tourism Thematic Interpretation Framework (NHTTIF) is an interpretive framework methodology that can be used to develop an enhanced visitor experience by integrating heritage more effectively in tourism. It was developed for the Australian Department for the Environment and Heritage in response to the ‘telling the story’ opportunity identified by the National Tourism and Heritage Taskforce. The NHTTIF is used to identify a site-specific interpretive theme through to a national or international interpretive theme, as part of an interconnected web of ‘stories’ about Australia. Sites used during the development of the NHTTIF included the World Heritage Australian Fossil Mammal Site at Naracoorte, South Australia, the Port Arthur Historic Site in Tasmania and the Brambuk Aboriginal Cultural Centre in Victoria. This paper demonstrates the development and application of the NHTTIF at the Naracoorte Caves World Heritage Site, with a site-specific story theme of ‘the bigger they are, the harder they fall!’, referring to the fossilised extinct Australian mega-fauna. Other themes are demonstrated at a local, regional, state, and national level with implications at the international level as a World Heritage Site. The integration of heritage more effectively in tourism planning, development and management, and the interpretation of heritage sites fosters an understanding and appreciation of heritage, resulting in conservation.     

世界遗产地内索道乘客的特征、满意度及其影响 --武陵源案例研究

世界遗产地内是否有必要建设索道等现代化交通工具，是一个富有争议的话题，本文通过游客调查时索道等设施建设是否增加游客满意度的问题进行了实证研究。结果表明：①索道来客群体特征比较明显；②大部分游客时景区内索道等享受型交通工具持欢迎态度，但同时他们也认为索道、电梯等交通工具造成的排队等候增加了景区内拥挤感，影响了游览感受；③游客时索道、电梯等客运交通工具的满意度与游客时目的地总体满意度并无显著线性关系，索道等交通工具建设并不能直接增加游客总体满意度。     

中国的世界遗产管理之路--黄山模式评价及其更新(上)

黄山一直被视为中国文化与自然遗产管理的样板单位。本文基于对黄山诸多侧面的认真调查 ,在肯定黄山模式成就的同时 ,指出黄山模式更新的必要性与迫切性。本文认为 ,黄山模式的意义在于它适应当代社会和经济的发展趋势 ,在遗产管理中引入市场机制 ,较好地解决了遗产管理费用问题以及对当地的经济贡献问题。同时 ,本文还认为 ,作为一个现代社会的世界遗产管理单位 ,黄山正面临着命运攸关的挑战。     

Heritage complexity and tourism: the case of Lumbini,Nepal

Differences in values, interests, expectations and priorities among stakeholders, a major source of dissonance, may create conflict in heritage and can be a challenge for its preservation and management. This study uses Lumbini, Nepal, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, to examine heritage complexity and tourism. Lumbini, one of the most important Buddhist sites for the world's 500 million Buddhists, is surrounded by a population of different faiths, mainly Hindus and Muslims. Locals, who are predominantly non-Buddhist, see the local patrimony more as an economic resource than spiritual one, whereas the government uses the site for building national pride, garnering international support and promoting tourism. Furthermore, despite its potential for attracting Western, regional and domestic tourists and a growing trend in arrivals, the community and the region have not benefited well from tourism. Although Lumbini is currently experiencing “latent dissonance,” this can be reduced through communication, cooperation and collaboration among various stakeholders.     

Heritage protection and tourism development priorities in Hangzhou, China: A political economy and governance perspective

Government interventions can be important for determining priorities between heritage protection and tourism-related development at heritage sites. This paper uses a political economy approach to examine the government’s role in determining these priorities in China, for two heritage schemes at West Lake in the city of Hangzhou. The study considers policy making for heritage protection and tourism development in the context of broad economic and political circumstances, the power and influence of different actors in the schemes’ governance, strategic selectivity in the policy choices, and whether views about the policies exhibited a uniform hegemony among powerful and less influential groups. Consideration is given to how the relative priority for heritage protection and tourism development in policies reflected the state’s regulation of the economy and maintenance of its political legitimacy. A powerful policy community was found that was beginning to consider other actors’ views, but tourism development remained a prominent driver.     

Watching the FIFA World Cup 2010 in England: the sojourner perspective

Recent years have seen an emergence of a varied academic literature focused on the football fan, with a wealth of studies exploring issues such as hooliganism, fan behaviour and fan identification. No research, however, has documented the experiences and perspectives of the international sojourner, who follows the televised tournament far away from the home country. This paper offers a contribution to the literature on fandom by focusing on the experiences of becoming a temporary fan among a sample of nine international students in England during the period of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. It shows the importance of the tournament for students away from their home nation, acting as a point of celebration and as a means of bringing sojourners of the same nationality together to support their team. It reveals how the tournament offered escape from stress, became a focal point for social interaction, provided the opportunity for recreation of home, and for the reinforcement of feelings of national identity.     

Mega-events as drivers of community participation in developing countries: The case of Shanghai World Expo

Within a wide body of literature it has been argued and demonstrated that community participation in tourism development is advantageous in terms of the sustainability and effectiveness of the development policies adopted. However, over time, doubts have been raised about whether community participation should take place in developing countries. There are major concerns regarding the immaturity and the incompliance of the political and social conditions of developing countries in relation to the requirements necessary for an effective participatory planning. In this paper, we argue that mega-events, due to their wide scope and the key role that large groups of stakeholders play in their success, may represent a driver for community participation in developing countries. In order to explore our idea, we will analyse tourism development and the planning of a mega-event within the Yangtze River Delta area, driven by the organisation and preparation of the Shanghai World Expo. According to our evidence, some initial elements of participative decision-making have indeed developed around the organisation of this mega-event, even though China has historically been considered refractory towards community participation. Finally, we discuss the findings in the light of existing knowledge to elicit significant questions about community participation in tourism development within developing countries and to address further research on this topic.     

世界遗产旅游发展中的政府定位研究

国家公园制度在我国实行的财政、行政管理、法治等条件尚未成熟,而且效率条件即使在美国是否满足仍然值得进一步研究。遗产旅游的政府经营存在一个悖论：规模经济在行政性垄断条件下效果并不理想。政府应该立足于经济规制职能的发挥,突出表现在遗产资源的保护和生态的维护。本文以一个价格下限模型为例,说明通过控制旅游者数量的方式限制经营者的可能实现途径。     

Rock art tourism in the uKhahlamba/Drakensberg World Heritage Site: obstacles to the development of sustainable tourism

This paper focuses on rock art tourism, a highly vulnerable heritage of broad public interest, only sustainable within an effective management framework. The paper explores tourism management in South Africa's uKhahlamba-Drakensberg World Heritage Site, inscribed in 2000 for its natural landscapes and its exceptional rock art heritage. In practice, nature dominates the area's tourism and management dynamics. Current tourism patterns, markets and frequencies, together with rock art's low place within tourist agendas, are described. This situation is shown to be a legacy of European Alpine romanticism, and the political rejection of indigenous cultural heritage prior to 1994, still expressed through visitor patterns and marketing policies. Despite rock art needing tourism to valorise its conservation, and being recognised by commentators and the state as a viable route to tourism development, heritage conservation, socio-economic regeneration and cultural empowerment, the failure to reform entrenched and ineffective tourism/conservation governance and management systems is exposed. The problems affecting rock art tourism have allowed the retention of unwelcome values from South Africa's pre-democratic era, risk the loss of World Heritage site status, the destruction of globally outstanding art works and waste an important opportunity to expand and diversify sustainable tourism in South Africa.     

Nature tourism trends in Australia with reference to the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area

Nature-based tourism has been viewed as a large and growing segment of the tourism market. Advocates of nature-based tourism argue its potential to generate income for biodiversity conservation and local economic benefit, while detractors fear a risk of “loving our parks to death”. Some recent studies have suggested that nature-based tourism may be declining on a per capita basis, especially in economically developed countries. Others have detected no such trend. Nature-based tourism is a key industry within Australia, based strongly on its unique scenery and biodiversity. We compared nature-based visitation and population growth during 1998–2012 for Australia overall and specifically for the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area which is adjacent to the country's largest conurbation of Greater Sydney. We found substantial declines in domestic per capita visitation, both nationally and regionally. Because visitation provides the “political capital” for parks to survive, strategies to encourage visitation should be a target for land managers. Since children foster environmentally responsible behaviour in adults, they should be part of the focus for developing diverse experiences that encourage park visitation.     

Evaluation of the impact of the tourism nation promotion project on inbound tourists in Japan: a difference-in-differences approach

This study quantitatively evaluates the impact of the Tourism Nation Promotion Project on tourism demand. Data were obtained from Japan Tourism Agency’s quarterly survey from 2010Q2 to 2015Q4. Cox and zero-truncated negative binomial models and difference-in-differences approach were applied to analyze tourism demand and the project’s impact on inbound tourists’ length of stay and expenditure in Japan. Empirical results showed a positive and significant average treatment effect on length of stay and expenditure for tourists from Australia, China, Russia, and Thailand. These findings indicate that the Japanese government should use differentiated strategies considering different nationalities’ characteristics to attract foreign tourists.     

Visitors' perceptions of the use of cable cars and lifts in Wulingyuan World Heritage Site,China

This paper examines perceptions and attitudes towards the use of cable cars with specific reference to Wulingyuan World Heritage Site in China. A total of 45 respondents were interviewed using open-ended questioning and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis suggests six motives for the use of the lift: (1) tight schedules generated by travel agents and tour operators, (2) lack of physical strength to walk to the summit, (3) group membership influences, (4) the saving of time, (5) lack of information about alternative approaches and (6) novelty of the lift. However, when questioned about sources of satisfaction, respondents tended to refer to other aspects of their visit. This raises questions of managerial significance, as in the past the construction of such lifts and cableways has been based on a premise of enhancing visitors' satisfaction with their visit, and this perceived advantage has been seen as outweighing possible adverse environmental impacts