Racialised boundaries in tourism and travel: a case study of the UK black Caribbean community

Studies of tourism motivation and behaviour have not accounted significantly for the aspirations and experiences of ethnic minority groups living in metropolitan societies. This conceptual paper presents a case study of the UK black Caribbean community and seeks to indicate ways in which members of this community perceive places, spaces and destinations in Europe. Attention is directed to how black people’s perceptions and experiences are influenced and structured by the social conditions of racialism and racism. The discussion considers how the incursive nature of the white gaze, and popular representations and stereotypes of black societies and cultures, contribute to black people’s disengagement from ‘tourism experiences’. Racialised experiences and encounters call into question an individual’s right to adopt a tourist identity. As the discussion partly focuses on ways in which black visitors perceive ‘white others’, the work strongly implies that there is a fundamental need to remove the ‘white gaze’ as the only or dominant way to observe and make sense of the world. Given that this paper contributes to an understanding of how race relations are reproduced within tourism environments, it concludes with suggestions as to how future studies of ethnic minority tourism and travel might be conducted.     

游戏:旅游活动中的另一个精神“中心”——基于赫伊津哈游戏理论的探讨

文章在科恩提出的旅游活动精神"中心"理论的基础上,运用赫伊津哈的游戏理论对旅游中的游戏活动进行分析,发现不仅游戏意义隽永,而且旅游者在参与游戏的过程中同样能够体验到远方"中心"体验中的"类过渡状态",因而游戏构成了旅游活动中的另一个精神"中心"。依据旅游者对三大精神"中心"的依附情况,文章将旅游体验模式分为转移模式、嬉戏模式、游戏模式和体验模式(包括实验模式和存在模式)。即使是在以大自然为对象的旅游活动中,旅游者只要参与了任何形式的游戏项目,就可以获得诸如神圣、荣誉、美德、审美、人际、怀旧等方面的精神意义。相对于文化的根植性而言,游戏具有普适性和较强的可移植性,这为游戏类旅游吸引物的开发与推广提供了新的理论基础。     

A taxonomy of creative tourists in creative tourism

This study aims to characterize creative tourists and their perceptions of creative experiences at tourism sites. Creative tourists are active co-creators of their experiences; hence, they should be treated as a heterogeneous group of co-producers who have subjective opinions and feelings toward their creative experiences. The existing literature suggests that a creative experience is constructed by ‘inner reflections’, which include not only ‘consciousness/awareness’, ‘needs/motivations’ and ‘creativity’, but also ‘outer interactions’ which refer to ‘environment’, ‘people’ and ‘activity’ (Tan, Kung, & Luh, 2013). However, how a particular mix of factors interact and define an individual's perceptions of a creative experience may vary among different types of creative tourists. Q methodology was used to reveal the tourists' inherent subjectivity of creative experiences with regard to the constructions of personal meaning. Five distinct groups of creative tourists were identified: novelty-seekers, knowledge and skills learners, those who are aware of their travel partners' growth, those who are aware of green issues, and the relax and leisure type. Each consists of a different composition of factors which can provide new insights into how different creative tourists construct their personal creative experiences at these sites.     

Why Heidegger did not travel: Existential angst,authenticity, and tourist experiences

“Authenticity” continues to be debated within tourism studies, as seen in the extensive number of articles published in ATR since 1999 on this subject. Advocates of existential authenticity have used the work of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger to argue that tourists seek experiences that counter the emptiness of everyday life in modern societies and provide them an opportunity to be more authentic. This is, however, based on a partial reading of Heidegger. His work implicitly questions the efficacy of travel as a means of experiencing a greater awareness of one’s own place in the world and explicitly rejects cosmopolitanism as a worldview. Rather than a new intervention, ‘existential authenticity’ is a return to a familiar travel/tourist dichotomy.     

Exploring bad faith in tourism

Previous applications of existential philosophy to tourism have focused on the work of Martin Heidegger but have neglected the contribution of Jean-Paul Sartre. This paper examines the relevance of Sartre's concept of ‘bad faith’ to tourism. Bad faith is a way of living based on inauthenticity, self-deception, and disregard for the Other. The paper explores the manifestation of bad faith in three contemporary scenarios: flying and its implications for climate change; conforming to the expectations of other people through social media engagements; and sex tourism. It argues that bad faith - compromising and denying individual freedom – underpins many tourism practices. The paper ends by considering future opportunities for using Sartre's philosophy to understand tourist experiences.     

(Re)constructing the tourist experience? Editing experience and mediating memories of learning to dive

Abstract

Through an analysis of the mediative techniques involved in the production of videographic tourist memorabilia (specifically souvenir DVDs of learning to SCUBA dive), in this paper I seek to render visible the often unconsidered aspects of visual media production that result in not only visual images themselves, but also by extension, the construction of alternate realities of leisure space and tourist performance. A connectionist approach to the study of memory is advocated highlighting that mediatory technologies, whilst acting as stimulants for recollection, actually inform and construct memories rather than transmitting realistic snippets of past experience. In the paper, it is questioned whether ‘authenticity’ is a relevant frame of reference bearing in mind that the ‘post-tourist’ is often perfectly aware of the lack of authenticity in many tourist activities and happy to go along with a pretence. With this in mind, the paper concludes by stating that ‘reality’ is arguably being edited out of memories concerning tourism’s places and practices through the production of commercially driven and produced ‘souvenirs’. For the most part, the paper focuses on the experiences of young tourists between the ages of 18–25, the key demographic attracted to the field site in question.     

‘Consuming’ tourist sites/sights: a note on York

Two perspectives on place-consumption are considered: a ‘business metaphor’ by which the city is viewed as a consumable ‘product’; and a cultural perspective whereby a relationship between tourist site and mythical meaning is theorised. MacCannell's theorised trajectory of discovery, by which tourists progressively seek out the ‘unmarked’ and ‘authentic’, appears to be validated by observation of supplyside visitor attractions in York. A conventional product extension strategy inspired by the ‘business metaphor’ and involving the acquisition of a new ‘icon’ attraction would arguably accelerate the process of commodification, simultaneously eroding the potential for self-authored experience on the part of the tourist. Such a strategy may thus prove incomplete in its capacity to secure the long-term health of tourism in a mature, successful destination.     

PARTicipative inquiry for tourist experience

Despite a wealth of research on the tourist experience, empirical evidence remains weak due to difficulties in data collection during people’s holidays. Tourist experience has thus primarily been analysed from a fixed point, such as prior motivations to travel or retrospective accounts. However, this obscures important information on tourists as they transition through the total experience. This paper presents participative inquiry as a novel methodology for the acquisition of data before, during and after the holiday; facilitating ‘prospective’, ‘active’ and ‘reflective’ triangulation (PART). We provide an empirical example of PARTicipative inquiry in practice, highlighting the benefits and challenges of this approach alongside the (otherwise) hidden insights it reveals into the responsible tourist experience.     

International Travelers from Taiwan

Abstract

Taiwanese outbound travel market has been continuously growing but little in-depth research has investigated this market. This study uses discriminant analysis to examine Taiwanese outbound travelers whose travel philosophy is strongly oriented toward inclusive package vacations versus those who are not through their sociodemographics, travel characteristics, and benefits pursued variables. The results indicate that philosophy is a useful way to separate groups and that Taiwanese inclusive-package travelers tended to be female, older, with lower incomes, and less well educated. They usually seek a ‘Show and Tell,’ ‘Cost,’ and ‘Environment and Scenery’ benefits, spend more money on trips, and travel in larger groups. These findings can assist travel and tourism related organizations in developing packages and marketing strategies.     

Present whilst absent: Home and the business tourist gaze

This paper reflects on business travel as a contemporary form of mobility and how it relates to family life. Through qualitative research with business travellers, insights are gained into the role digital technology plays in enabling connections to home and family. The paper argues that technology affords a ‘business tourist gaze’, characterised by a focus on ‘home’ rather than ‘away’ as might be the case for leisure tourists. The paper discusses how, through the business tourist gaze, the boundaries between the everyday and the exotic are dissolved and the business traveller is disconnected from the destination, simultaneously absent whilst present both at the destination and at home. Theoretical understandings of the business tourist experience are offered.     

The impact of the ‘Girls on the Move’ Leadership Programme on young female leaders’ self-esteem

Using findings obtained from an evaluation of the ‘Girls on the Move’ Leadership Programme in Scotland, this paper assesses the impact physical activity leadership courses and leading physical activities had on young women’s global self-esteem. While research has shown that engagement in youth development activities can contribute to an individual’s self-esteem, less is known about the impact of youth leadership on young people’s self-esteem. Based on pre-course and six-month follow-up surveys and using the Rosenberg self-esteem scale, it was found that increases in global self-esteem scores were highest in those that maintained an involvement in leading activities. The self-esteem of those attending training but not taking on leadership responsibilities remained largely unchanged. The findings indicate that youth leadership development has the power to make important contributions to the development of young people and youth development professionals should seek to provide meaningful leadership experiences for young people.     

Gazes and faces in tourist photography

The article illuminates one of the central ethical questions concerning tourist photography: the ways in which tourists photograph local people in tourist destinations. In line with the previous research on tourist photography, the study suggests that tourists’ experiences of responsible behaviour become continuously re-defined and negotiated in relations with others. Through a hermeneutic phenomenological analysis of tourists’ accounts, the study focusses on the role of the face in photography; that is, how encountering the face of the other interrupts the photographer and calls for heightened responsibility and reflection. Drawing on the Levinasian idea of ethics as being-for-the-other, the article visualizes relational ethics that do not originate from the tourist’s gaze, but from the face of the other.     

Locating Muslimah in the travel and tourism research

Female Muslims have commonly been stereotyped as a subordinate group. However, their tourism participations have evolved through time that recently, it became a niche tourism segment of its own. Through reviewing existing literature, this study provides a comprehensive analysis and interpretation on the phenomenon of female Muslim travel/tourism. Common research domains were: ‘Choice of travel companion(s)’, ‘Issue of gender subordination’, ‘Gendered identity and religious stereotypes’ and ‘Factors facilitating travel’. This study asserted that female Muslims' perceptions and experiences of travel/tourism are majorly impacted by their religious and gendered identities. The literature appraisal also demonstrated scholarship progressions by analyzing and discussing research approaches taken by existing studies. Ultimately, it drew insights on research gaps and future research directions.     

Reaching audiences through travel vlogs: The perspective of involvement

Travel vlogs are popular, but how audiences get involved while watching remains unclear. This study explored audience involvement along with expressions of travel intention. A systematic sampling procedure was developed, filtering 132 ‘highly involving sessions’ from 25 videos in Bilibili, a Chinese video-sharing platform. Qualitative analyses were applied, and the findings were threefold. Firstly, a five-category video content typology was highlighted, including frame aesthetics, video editing, fandom, humour, and tourist experiences. Secondly, bullet comments were deconstructed into six dimensions through examining concepts of ‘audience involvement’. Lastly, to address possible patterns of travel intention linked to the video content types, three propositions were made. This work serves as an exploration of audience involvement in the travel vlog phenomenon, an elaboration of travel intention expression in this context, and a method of assessing tourist-generated videos through bullet comments. Practical implications were discussed.     

Living travel vulnerability: A phenomenological study

Most tourism-scholars have taken an etic perspective on vulnerability, defining the concept as a risk for - and mostly confined to - vulnerable populations. An emic perspective, defining vulnerability as a universal, experiential state of the human condition is anyhow largely absent. Based on forty collected experiences from interviews with twelve participants, this study adopts a phenomenological stance and demonstrates that travel vulnerability is typically lived through different inherent, situational and pathogenic sources, ranging anywhere from potential physical harm and unfamiliar contexts to heightened dependence on the other. The peak experience for the traveller is described as a loss of soundness, where vulnerability actualises from a dispositional state into a transformative experience. Through a Nietzschean lens, the study suggests a different and more complex approach to travel vulnerability, where the concept is embraced and not transcended, lived and not avoided; in order to move towards fulfilling travel experiences.     

Journeys of well-being: Women's travel narratives of transformation and self-discovery in Italy

Travel narratives can shape tourist imaginings about places, and are a useful tool for understanding tourist experiences. One long-standing media trope is the transformative potential of travel to Italy, especially for women. In this qualitative phenomenological study, contemporary non-fiction books written by women about their travel experiences in Italy were analysed, using well-being as a theoretical framework. Six well-being dimensions were found to be present in these narratives, with the first five reflecting the dimensions of the DRAMMA model of triggers promoting well-being in leisure, alongside an additional dimension drawn from the PERMA model of well-being. Both hedonic and eudaimonic forms of well-being were mentioned. Identity, in terms of self-discovery and reinventing oneself, underpinned a number of these dimensions. The study extends work on travel imaginings beyond the fictional literary or film context and has practical implications for the promotion of destinations and marketing tourism as an avenue towards well-being.     

Analysis of tour values to develop enablers using an interpretive hierarchy-based model in Taiwan

Tourism experiences in natural landscapes are considered an integral component of tourism value. Tourism experiences can also create a link between an individual and his or her spiritual needs. Thus, this study aims to utilize an effective approach to interpret individual, subjective human experiences in natural environments using interpretive structural modeling. This technique is used to build a hierarchy-based model and determine the mutual relationships among the enablers of tour value. In addition, this study uses the Cross-Impact Matrix Multiplication Applied to Classification (MICMAC) analysis to analyze the degree of influence of these factors and their degree of dependence on each other. To collect the empirical data, questionnaires were distributed to visitors at Grand Gangshan, a tourist destination in northeastern Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The results show that particular enablers (Internet marketing, the establishment of sales locations and planning for travel information services) have a high degree of influence and exhibit low dependence. These enablers require a great deal of attention because of their strategic importance to tourism development. The approach employed in this study provides a very useful tool for travel authorities to use to differentiate between the independent and dependent variables affecting tour value and to identify the relationships among those variables. Using this approach will allow the actors in this industry to focus on the most important variables for promoting the visitor experience in natural settings.     

Preface

In current sociological analyses of tourist experience, class, race, ethnicity, age and gender are being incorporated into frameworks which initially assumed that male views of the phenomenon are universal. In this paper we seek to incorporate gender into the fundamental conceptualization of the tourist and the tourist destination. Drawing on concepts from interactionist and poststructural feminist theories we critique the male bias in the conceptualization of the tourist as ‘flaneur’ and the tourist desination as ‘image’ for the tourist gaze. A concept of the tourist destination as ‘chora’, or interactive space is offered. The tourist then becomes a creative, interacting ‘choraster’ who takes home an experience which impacts on the self in some way. We suggest that such a feminized conceptualization adds a second dimension to the one dimensional perspective which predominates in current sociological analyses of the tourist phenomenon.     

世俗的朝圣:西藏旅游体验研究

西藏正成为越来越重要的旅游目的地,然而对西藏旅游体验具体的微观研究却相对缺乏。文章通过对西藏旅游者的深度访谈,来探讨他们的旅游体验。游客往往将西藏想象成一种神圣之地,西藏的旅游体验对于游客而言也具有神圣的意义,主要体现在游客对自然、宗教和藏族人的体验上。西藏纯净的自然可以净化游客的心灵,让他们联想到远离喧嚣的生活。西藏的寺庙和朝拜的信徒营造出一种虔诚而神圣的氛围,让游客内心备受震动。看到藏民的执着和虔诚,游客心中会产生一种满足感。而藏民淳朴的为人处世的方式更让游客感到一种自己社会所缺失了的真实。西藏的神圣不在于游客对其宗教的信仰上,而在于其社会文化意义,西藏提供了游客日常生活所缺失的自然与人文,满足了游客的精神需求。西藏的旅游体验与其说是宗教朝圣,毋宁说是一种世俗的朝圣。     

‘Up in the air’: A conceptual critique of flying addiction

The ‘flyers’ dilemma’, where an individual’s self-identity as an environmentally-responsible consumer conflicts with the environmental impacts of frequent air travel, has been shown to produce a range of negative psychological effects. Some have argued that frequent flying may represent a site of behavioural addiction, characterized by guilt, suppression and denial. While this sort of pathologisation finds parallels in other forms of excessive consumption, its application in a tourist context is problematic in terms of classification validity, attribution of negative consequences, transfer of responsibility, and tendency towards social control and domination. We argue for an alternative conceptual approach to frequent flying which elaborates the structural reproduction of the ‘flyers’ dilemma’, rather than its individual, psychological effects.