境外国家公园社区管理冲突：表现、溯源及启示

国家公园社区冲突研究对于目前中国正开展的国家公园体制试点工作具有指导意义。文章以境外国家公园社区冲突为现实案例,梳理公园管理机构与社区之间冲突的具体表现,发现社区冲突是由公园定界、公园生态保护和公园开发利用3个方面所引致,由此追根溯源至土地政策、利益机制和管理手段。当这三者置身于国家公园体制框架中时,从土地权属保障制度、社区参与制度和特许经营制度3个方面着手预防或改善公园与社区居民之间的关系是具有可操作性和针对性的。文章提出的4类土地权属关系可从一定程度上解决生态保护和社区发展的矛盾,PAC模式保证了社区在国家公园利益分配和补偿中的重要地位,透明顺畅的信息沟通增强社区对公园的信任和信心,社区特许经营制度向社区的倾斜可保障失地社区居民生计。当社区居民“得以偿失”,社区冲突就会止于源头。     

A social representation approach to facilitating adaptive co-management in mountain destinations managed for conservation and recreation

Mountain destinations are often managed not only to support tourism and recreation but also to maintain a range of sensitive ecological processes and services. Resource use and management activities in mountain destinations are manifestations of various representations of mountain landscapes that may contribute to tension and conflicts, or collaboration and learning between stakeholders of mountain destinations. Adaptive co-management (ACM) that adopts a social learning model to forge collaborative natural resource management provides one approach to managing complex and dynamic social-ecological systems in mountain destinations. Social representations (SR) theory, as a theory of social knowledge and social change, offers one theoretical lens with which to gain insights into the representations that different stakeholders ascribe to mountain landscapes and to assist in developing functioning ACM. The utility of SR theory for ACM arrangements is examined using a case study that explores the representations of the mountain landscape within Yushan National Park (YNP) in Taiwan from the perspectives of three resource user groups: committed mountaineers, professional guides, and mountain tourists. The study findings are used to demonstrate how the processes of representations and dialogical antinomies embedded in representations can impede or facilitate stakeholder interactions in ACM.     

Operating small tourism firms in rural destinations: A social representations approach to examining how small tourism firms cope with non-tourism induced changes

This study explores the representation that owners and managers of small tourism firms ascribe to their rural destination and how non-tourism induced changes interfere with this representation and motivate coping as guided by social representations theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-four owners and/or managers of at least one small accommodation property in Gloucester, New South Wales, Australia. The informants became involved in the area's accommodation sector primarily driven by the lifestyle goals embedded in their representation of Gloucester. The perception that mining-induced changes might transform Gloucester into a mining town as opposed to its current representation as a town with a mine has motivated many informants to cope. However, coping is impeded by feelings of powerlessness, perceived uncertainties, and distrust in both government and industry. The findings provide preliminary insight into why and how small tourism firm owners/managers cope when faced with change from the perspective of social representations.     

Rukai indigenous tourism: Representations,cultural identity and Q method

In tourism, cultural representations of indigenous destinations are problematic. They are essential to the promotion of tourism, making destinations understandable and desirable to visitors. But they are also blamed for upsetting the cultural equilibrium of smaller destinations. However, in practice, the origin, mechanism and effects of touristic representations are not easy to identify. In this study, the problem of representations and resident cultural identity in indigenous tourism is explored. In consideration of the generative nature of representations and the contingency of subjectivities toward them, this study is context-specific, focusing on a small but significant community in southern Taiwan where indigenous tourism is a dominant industry and social issue. Q method, a technique designed for the systematic study of subjectivity in terms of opinions, beliefs, and attitudes is employed, eliciting responses from a P set (sample) of 30 participants. Subjectivities were elicited using photographs of one cultural representation, the indigenous Rukai standing stones. It was found that representations must be learned but can be ignored, and that in this community tourism is not the only socio-economic power that drives the feedback loop between representations and subjectivity. For tourism management, implications are that representations can be highly effective tools for destination promotion when informed by the diverse and highly individualized subjectivities of its residents and the production of quality local products.     

Customer emotions minute by minute: How guests experience different emotions within the same service environment

For years, the importance of customer emotions has been recognized in the service literature. Despite existing research, the discrete emotions generated by each service encounter within the theme park setting deserves more attention. The present research uses a quantitative research method to ascertain the various customer emotions experienced throughout the theme park experience using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Data was analyzed using multinomial logistic regression as well as correlation analysis. Results indicate that the emotions most likely to produce a satisfying theme park experience take place when enjoying rides, dining, and interacting with others. In contrast, the emotions generated while buying tickets were negatively associated with a satisfying theme park experience. Based on the results of this study, the authors provide a series of recommendations to generate positive emotions at key service encounters within the theme park experience.     

Host perceptions of sociocultural impacts

This paper investigates community perceptions of the sociocultural impacts of tourism and examines the extent to which they coincide with their classifications made by academic writers. A literature review revealed a range of sociocultural impacts related to tourism development, the tourist–host interaction, and resulting influences. A resident survey was undertaken which showed that perceived impacts reported by informants coincided with the majority of those identified in the literature. This suggested that the general analyses of the sociocultural impacts of tourism could be applied to the perceptions of residents of a small British coastal tourist resort.     

Conservation finance and sustainable tourism: the acceptability of conservation fees to support the Tambopata National Reserve,Peru

Protected areas are key to the conservation of global biodiversity and ecosystem services; however, their success is contingent upon adequate funding. One possibility to increase funding for park management is to “sell” a wider suite of ecosystem services “produced” by protected areas, such as carbon sequestration. We conducted 420 tourist surveys to analyze willingness to pay (WTP) for ecosystem service benefits via a conservation fee in the Tambopata National Reserve in Peru. We also interviewed eight tour operators about their perceptions of the proposed fee. The average stated WTP was 15 USD. Sixty-six percent of tourists stated they would pay 10 USD or more, which, if actually paid, would have resulted in 318,000 USD for park management in 2015. Most respondents stated they would pay an additional fee if it supported biodiversity conservation or local ecosystem services, such as water, but less than 10% of tourists were motivated by carbon sequestration as a reason to pay the fee. Most tour operators supported the additional fee. Our findings suggest that tourists are willing to pay higher fees to support conservation but that interest in paying for additional ecosystem services from parks may not extend to global and intangible benefits such as carbon sequestration.     

Using web and mobile technology to motivate pro-environmental action after a nature-based tourism experience

Nature-based tourism provides an ideal context for motivating pro-environmental action, as it draws travellers interested in the natural world and showcases unique, and often threatened, environments. This study examines efforts to motivate environmentally related behaviour in tourists' everyday lives using a technology-based intervention following an elephant seal viewing tour at California's Año Nuevo State Park. A total of 362 visitors completed pre-tour and post-tour surveys, with 94 visitors completing a final survey three months after the tour. We found that, although the intervention had little influence on conservation action overall, it was effective for a social media-related action. Post-tour conservation actions were significantly affected by emotional connection to wildlife during the tour and repeat visitation to either the same or another state park. We found that visitors' connectedness to nature increased during the three-hour tour, but returned to pre-visit levels three months later. Practical implications include that parks should encourage repeat visits, suggest an assortment of other experiences that support connecting to nature, and link their conservation messaging to visitors' close, personal, and emotional experiences with fauna. We suggest that one simple, yet effective, way to do this is through maintaining the visitor–park experience through a social media community.     

Social value creation through tourism enterprise

Despite the role of social entrepreneurship to create social value and transformation, little is still known about how social value can be generated. Drawing upon the service dominant logic and entrepreneurship literature, the paper aims to identify the resource needs of a tourism social enterprise and evaluate the means by which these resources are mobilised. Twenty seven face-to-face interviews were conducted with key informants in a developing country case study context. The key resources required for social value creation in tourism are natural; financial; political and institutional and human capital. These resources enable the generation of social value at three levels with interlocking value creation processes: at an individual stakeholder level; at the meso level and at the macro-level. Strategies associated with resource mobilisation are stakeholder involvement and collaboration; and relationship development and local community empowerment. A shared understanding of the role of tourism and cultural values is critical.     

An alternative approach to community-based ecotourism: a bottom-up locally initiated non-monetised project in Papua New Guinea

Community-based ecotourism (CBET) is presented as a tool for conservation and sustainable development by conservation practitioners and development agencies, but is reported to have achieved little. Several scholars argue that many problems stem from inadequate power relationships between external actors and local communities, leading to low community participation. This study opens a debate on governance and social enterprise in CBET by examining a bottom-up approach to community-based ecotourism based on a small-scale CBET initiative in an amenity-poor remote indigenous community in Papua New Guinea. This initiative is unique in the following aspects: it was initiated by a community member; external assistance was advisory only; no external financial assistance was given; and it has taken place in a non-monetised economy. Participant observation and in-depth interviews with local key informants were used to identify community-defined positive/negative impacts and community participation processes. Overall, there was substantial support for the project; it contributed to community welfare, generated economic benefit, had positive conservation outcomes and from the viewpoint of the community had no adverse cultural impacts. One of the keys for success was the development of a strong community agency that led to high community participation and individual rather than the community ownership.     

Park Usage,Social Milieu,and Psychosocial Benefits of Park Use Reported by Older Urban Park Users from Four Ethnic Groups

Structured interviews were conducted with African-American, Hispanic-American, Asian-American and Caucasian-American park users (N = 463) during one of their visits to a large urban park. The participants varied from 55 to 93 years of age. Most (77%) of the interviews were conducted by interviewers of the same ethnicity as the interviewee, and interviews were conducted in Spanish or Chinese when that was the preferred language of the interviewee. A stratified quota sampling plan was established to ensure that interviews were conducted in all areas of the park, at all times of the day and on both weekdays and weekends. Preliminary analyses indicated that neither gender nor age differences accounted for a meaningful percent of the variance in the dependent variables. Consequently, chi-square analyses and analyses of variance were performed with ethnicity as the independent variable. Significant differences were found among the ethnic groups in their use of park facilities, the social milieu within which they visit the park, and their ratings of the psychosocial benefits of park use.     

城市公园使用状况评价(POE)应用案例研究--以北京玉渊潭公园为例

本文运用POE(post occupancy evaluation)基本研究方法,对北京玉渊潭公园做了调查研究.通过观察公园使用者的各类活动,采访公园的使用者以及发放抽样调查问卷等形式,了解北京玉渊潭公园的使用状况,并对调查所获直接、真实的信息和数据做分析、整理,得到POE评价分析报告.该报告可为玉渊潭公园改善服务设施、提高管理水平提供依据,也可为其它类似公园的设计管理提供借鉴.     

A preliminary study of chefs’ attitudes and knowledge of healthy eating in Edinburgh's restaurants

This article details the findings of a preliminary study carried out in Edinburgh restaurants producing representations of chefs’ attitudes to healthy eating. Despite a lack of awareness of government targets and promotions aimed at the Hospitality industry, chefs were positive towards healthy eating and believe that they were already practising it. They perceive their role as being multi-faceted from deferential service provider to educator and artist relying mainly upon their own inspiration when creating menus. Tension between commercial goals and moral principles was evident by the fact that customers were perceived as the main barrier and equally the main reason to offer healthy options on the menu.     

Application of revenue management practices to the theme park industry

Revenue management (RM) has been an essential strategy to maximize revenue for many capacity-limited service industries. Considering the common industry characteristics of traditional RM industries, the nature of the theme park industry suggests potential for enhancing revenue by exercising a variety of RM techniques. This study suggests practices for theme park operators for successful RM application. In addition, this study examines how customers perceive RM practice in the theme park industry compared to a traditional RM industry, hotel industry. The findings indicate that customers seem to perceive RM practice in the theme park industry as relatively fair practices as similarly perceived for the hotel industry. The findings are encouraging for the theme park industry because a relatively similar level of its customers’ perceived fairness of the RM practice compared to the hotel industry suggests that adoption and implementation of the RM practice has great potential to become successful as it has been in traditional RM industries, such as hotels.     

THEMEQUAL—Adapting the SERVQUAL Scale to Theme Park Services: A Case of Hong Kong Disneyland

Faced with keen competition in the theme park operating environment, operators have realized the necessity of maintaining a high standard of service quality in order to survive. Because of the scarcity of literature on theme park service quality, the present study adapts the SERVQUAL model and modifies it as the THEMEQUAL model to measure the gap between perceived service quality and expected service quality from visitors under the theme park setting. The Hong Kong Disneyland is selected due to its importance to the Hong Kong tourism industry. The impact of the dimensions of the model on visitor satisfaction is also examined. Results expressed visitor satisfaction in terms of physical environment, but signified dissatisfaction on employee performance. Among the six dimensions of the model, “responsiveness and access,” “assurance,” and “empathy” are the critical predictors of visitor satisfaction. Discussions on the findings are presented and managerial implications are explained in detail.     

Is there an incompatibility between personal motives and social capital in triggering pro-environmental behavioral intentions in urban parks? A perspective of motivation-behavior relations

Drawing from the perspective of motivation-behavior relations, this study explores whether self-transcendent and activating status motives trigger pro-environmental behavioral intentions of residents living nearby urban parks. Meanwhile, this study particularly examines the moderating effect of community social capital and whether there exists an incompatibility between community social capital and personal motives. This study adopts Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) method to conduct data analysis and reveals that self-transcendent and activating status motives positively influence nearby residents' pro-environmental behavioral intentions. The relationships between personal motives and pro-environmental behavioral intentions are negatively affected by community social capital, suggesting that there is an incompatibility between community social capital and personal motives. Furthermore, a positive spillover effect between low and high effort pro-environmental behavioral intentions is noted. These findings provide park and community managers with insights as far as the residents' engagement in urban park sustainability is concerned.     

Carbon dioxide emissions from transport in Taiwan's national parks

Transport profoundly affects energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in the tourism sector. This study focuses on five national parks in Taiwan, namely Kenting National Park, Yushan National Park, Yangmingshan National Park, Taroko National Park and Sheipa National Park, and applies a bottom-up approach to determine the amount of CO₂ emissions from domestic tourism transport in 1999–2006. The CO₂ emission factor of private car derived in this study reveals a higher value than that of previous study due to its lower load factors. Moreover, CO₂ emissions per person are different in each national park, influenced by the attributes of travel distance and transport mode. The scenario analysis indicates that CO₂ emission can be reduced by increasing load factors of transport, tourist switching from private cars to public transport and going to destinations close to their points of departure, which can be achieved by authorities through activity management, regulation control and price adjustment. This is also an adequate solution for Taiwan Government owing to the increases in transport volume and the limited tourism budget.     

We Aren’t So Different After All: Differences and Similarities Between Political Affiliation and Issues of Park Use,Management, and Privatization

Abstract

Many researchers have argued that political polarization has increased dramatically over the past 25 years. This article explores partisan polarization regarding specific issues of state park use, management, and privatization. An online demographically stratified panel survey of New York and Pennsylvania residents was used to examine differences in attitudes toward these issues by political affiliation. Respondents were placed into three categories: Republican, Independent, and Democrat. While significant differences were found among the groups, they were often small and rarely between Democrats and Republicans. The only issues demonstrating clear partisan differences were certain park privatization issues, support for diversity initiatives, support for additional greenways, and support for shale gas development within state parks. The results from this study indicate little partisan polarization of state park issues.     

A Survey of Tourist Expectations and Economic Potential for a Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary in a Maasai Group Ranch near Amboseli,Kenya

This paper looks at the ethical, ecological, community, economic and management issues in extending wildlife tourism and conservation beyond national park boundaries in Kenya. It specifically examines the proposed Kuku Community Conservation Area (KCCA). Prerequisites, including the availability of diverse tourist attractions, local community support, the support of tourism investors and other stakeholders are considered. Research focused on interviews with tourists and tour operators visiting the Tsavo-Amboseli Ecosystem. Wildlife was the number one attraction for over 75% of tourists, though some were attracted by the Maasai culture. Most of the tourists (over 75%) were willing to visit a community wildlife sanctuary. This willingness was independent of their belief that the Maasai were actually benefiting from wildlife resources (p > 0.20) but was dependent (p < 0.001) on their desire to have the Maasai benefit. Most of them (over 70%) wanted the Maasai Community to benefit from wildlife and tourism, even though a majority (over 70%) did not know the role the community played in conservation, or (over 80% of them) the socio-economic burden that wildlife places on local communities. A majority (over 60%) of tourists had not visited a Maasai cultural centre, but most (over 70%) would have visited if they knew what was presented there. Based on a simple management model of 46 staff, KCCA could potentially generate a net Ksh10.35 million (US$147,867) annually, in addition to revenue from a proposed cultural centre and resource access benefits for the local community. With the existing tourist attractions in the area and with potential partnerships with tour companies, maximum benefit to the community from the successful tourism industry already operating in the area can be realised, hence legitimising wildlife conservation for the community.     

Local discourses and international initiatives: sociocultural sustainability of tourism in Oulanka National Park,Finland

National parks have become important tourist attractions and tools for regional development. New international initiatives, such as PAN (Protected Area Network) Parks in Europe, now promote sustainable tourism in protected areas. This paper examines the sociocultural sustainability of tourism perceived by local stakeholders of Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The central question concerns the role of PAN Parks certification in community and tourism development. Four discourses were identified, based on 40 semi-structured interviews exploring different views on sociocultural development pertaining to tourism in the national park: (1) integrating nature-based tourism and conservation, (2) defending the rights of local people, (3) stressing the economic utilization of nature and (4) accepting tourism development and the national park. Although local stakeholders mostly have a positive perception of tourism in the park, it cannot be concluded whether the park facilitates development in a sustainable manner or not. Key problems identified are lack of participation opportunities and contradictions with traditional subsistence economies. The various positions of stakeholders in these discourses tend to influence their views on sustainability. Findings imply the necessity to monitor the distribution of benefits and burdens of park development holistically to multiple stakeholders.