Racism as an inhibitor to the organisational legitimacy of Indigenous tourism businesses in Australia

Indigenous policy in many countries including Australia is focused on enhancing the socio-economic situation of Indigenous peoples through the encouragement of sustainable business models, including tourism business. Arguably, however, there are too few examples of sustainable Indigenous tourism businesses. Several authors have acknowledged that racism and discrimination are inhibitors to the sustainable development of Indigenous tourism businesses. Others have suggested that racism and discrimination directly impact on the extent to which these businesses are seen and respected as ‘legitimate’; that is, Indigenous business operators need to establish themselves as legitimate businesspersons in order to operate effectively in the global marketplace. Organisational legitimacy provides a useful lens for considering racism and discrimination and the extent to which it influences the perceived legitimacy of Indigenous tourism businesses. Legitimacy theory focuses on whether the norms exhibited by an organisation are congruent with the most general norms of society. This conceptual paper explores issues of racism and discrimination in Australia and the associated implications for Indigenous tourism businesses. This discussion is situated within the broader theory of organisational legitimacy; a concept that is commonly applied in various fields of business management, yet is largely unexplored within the tourism literature.     

Small firms in the tourism industry: some conceptual issues

Public policy to promote small business development is an established feature of the political landscape throughout western Europe. In a tourism context, there is a growing interest in the small business dimension, in both academic and policy terms. Yet, research relating to small firms does not appear to inform policy development. This paper argues that such a situation is exacerbated, if not precipitated, by a lack of common understanding about terminology and reasons for categorisation. The paper explores various definitions of ‘small tourism firms’ and examines the utility of adopting such a grouping as an analytical category. Following a critical review of statistics relating to the sector, it argues that additional research is required so that policy initiatives might be more finely focused. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Advertising of National Identity and Tourism Bureaucracy

This paper examines the presentation of notions of nationality within tourism advertising for the World Heritage Sites by the Greek National Tourism Organisation (GNTO). Heritage tourism is related to historical processes and present day judgements and encompasses issues of identity and political gains. Based on qualitative research, the empirical work succeeds in making a practical and theoretical contribution to the way a bureaucratic state organisation presents the ‘nationness’ of the state by interpreting various sites and approaching them in a symbolic way. This is an issue that has implications on the way tourism policies legitimise their actions towards such promotions. It reflects the dependence of the bureaucratic industry of tourism on symbols rather than on rationality according to the principles of bureaucracy.     

Tourist modernisation and social legitimation in Spain

Spain's modernisation has been based, to a large extent, on the so‐called ‘residential tourism’. Its two‐fold nature—as a production model and a type of lifestyle migration—has complex repercussions. The aim of this paper is to delve, with a qualitative approach, into the key factors that explain the current social legitimation of this process by the Spanish society. The research suggests that the process is legitimated by its definition as an essentially tourism phenomenon. The label ‘tourism’ acts as some sort of ‘funnel’ that would not allow to go through it the problems associated with lifestyle migration or urbanisation. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Small tourism business research change and evolution

The paper critically reflects on key knowledge contributions that coalesce to inform contemporary understanding of the phenomenon of small tourism business. The purpose is to scrutinise change and evolution in perspectives and how these impact on what knowledge is disclosed and what is not. Conventionally accepted wisdom is challenged, indoctrinated presuppositions are questioned, and research methodological advancements are offered. This is achieved through a comprehensive review and critical‐reflective analysis of key academic contributions spanning a period of approximately 35 years. The value is to stimulate criticality relative to what constitutes ‘truth’ within the given context and to inspire fresh research perspectives. Conclusions are drawn regarding future research directions. Furthermore, informed by thorough analysis of the content of the paper, five guiding research principles provide an appropriate conclusion. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Strategies for Adopting Consumer‐generated Media in Small‐sized to Medium‐sized Tourism Enterprises

Consumer‐generated media (CGM) are created when consumers submit, review or respond to online content. The bulk of research into CGM has focussed upon its use by consumers, with less research examining the use of CGM by small businesses. This article discusses small business sector use of online technologies such as CGM, concentrating on tourism small businesses as a key industry sector affected by CGM activities. A CGM ‘strategy’ framework, developed from an existing small business strategy framework, is proposed. This serves as a practical tool for developing CGM strategies and as a theoretical foundation for conducting research into the use of CGM. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Inherent factors of family business and transgenerational influencing tourism business in Malaysian islands

ABSTRACT

There is an indication that the existence of transgeneration enterprise has unique ability as a ‘resilient factor’ in sustainable tourism development. It bridges the relationship between resilience and sustainability. This paper highlight evidences of the relationship using two successful case studies of Small-Medium scale tourism enterprises on the islands in Malaysia, namely the islands of Langkawi and Tioman. The most important factors influencing successful family business in transgeneration enterprise by priority within the business wealth point of view are aspect of survival, followed by low-entry barriers, ‘passing the baton’, bridging relationship, ‘smallness’, and adapt and change. From the socioemotional wealth point of view, aspect of belonging followed by family welfare priorities, structural generation change, contextual embeddedness, attitude, informal decision making and friendly working environment influence the success of family business in transgeneration enterprises. Hence, sustainable tourism development in the context of local community empowerment might only be achieved once the ‘resilient factor’ is present or in place and ready at the tourism destination.     

Air transport and tourism – a systematic literature review (2000–2014)

This paper reviews the literature at the intersection between air transport and tourism research. While air transport and tourism are mutually dependent sectors, there is little research on their interaction. A systematic literature review method was used to select and analyse relevant journal articles published in 54 Australian Business Dean Council (ABDC) A*, A, or B-ranked journals from 2000 to 2014. Research themes, leading researchers, their institutions, and geographical locations are discussed. An extended framework for classification of the literature is developed through the content and thematic analysis. Among the identified research themes, ‘environment’, ‘passengers’, and ‘airlines’ are found to be the most common. The use of a systematic review has identified gaps in the literature and directions for future studies. Some of the identified areas that are showing a growing interest in the interrelationship between aviation and tourism include air route/service development; passenger experiences; low-cost carriers and their impact on tourism; implications of new direct long-haul flights; and carbon offsets.     

Reviewing Thailand's master plans and policies: implications for creative tourism?

This article contributes to an understanding of how creative tourism is perceived on a national level, by using Thailand as a case analysis. The primary objective of this article is to investigate Thailand's plans and policies for the creative economy at both national and ministry levels in relation to creative tourism. It also identifies how a national strategic plan can provide a blueprint for individual agency master plans to provide policy support for the development of the creative economy in the tourism sector. Thailand is chosen as an example of how government and related agencies can contribute to a national creative tourism movement in the country, especially in the light of the Tourism Authority of Thailand branding campaign to stimulate creative tourism to the destination. The qualitative research methodology through content analysis is used to scrutinise the plan and policy contents from the selected government agencies. The results demonstrate a better view of how creative tourism is positioned in the Thailand context and contribute to a policy study on the creative economy in the tourism sector as well as in creative tourism.     

Planning Host and Guest Interactions: Moving Beyond the Empty Meeting Ground in African Encounters

In many senses viewing the ‘other’ has always been a part of the tourist activity of dominant cultures. The ‘other’ has been seen as a source of difference and excitement with possibilities for exotic pleasure while at the same time dominant cultures have reinforced their own sense of superiority through viewing the ‘other’. The view from the ‘other’ is now becoming a part of tourism research and enabling mechanisms for this view are being developed in tourism planning. This paper seeks to examine how we can move beyond MacCannell’s view of the contact between tourists and hosts as an ‘empty meeting ground’. Just as postcolonial theorists have been critical of the exclusion of the ‘other’ in tourism theory, we argue for the voice of the ‘other’ to be heard in tourism planning practices. In this paper we examine the extent this is able to bring benefits to the process of community-based tourist development in developing countries such as Tanzania and Kenya. The paper theoretically scrutinises the relation between and the fluidity of the concepts of tourism, communities and power and the actuality of approaches to tourism planning that do not involve a submissive, subservient, exoticised and inferiorised view of the ‘other’. The particulars of inclusion of the voice of the ‘other’ bring some fresh insights to Western notions of community-based tourism planning.     

Empowering young people through participatory film: a postmethodological approach

Children and young people’s voices have often been neglected in tourism research, and this is particularly the case when exploring tourism from the host community’s perspective. The lack of children and young people in tourism research has been attributed to the slow engagement and adoption of alternative and critical methodologies which open up new and fresh ways of interpreting reality. The paper aims to explore the potential for participatory film to uncover the perspectives of marginalised members of the community such as children and young people. We also discuss the use of participatory film as an epistemic philosophy, and as a post-disciplinary form of methodology (or ‘postmethodology’) which is ideologically grounded. The findings suggest that children and young people feel strongly about their community and display feelings of anger and frustration towards tourists who are perceived to not respect the community and the environment. The methodological contribution of this paper lies in the use of an innovative and voice-generative participatory visual method to empower young people to actively participate in tourism research.     

Exploratory study in tourism: designing an initial,qualitative phase of sequenced,mixed methods research

Exploratory studies in the social sciences are being increasingly advocated, particularly in relation to new research themes or when addressing an existing issue from a new perspective. Although exploration is usually the starting point, it is frequently part of a sequence of research stages. However, until recently the actual process of conducting such exploratory research within the leisure and tourism field has received little attention. This is due not just to perceptions that exploration is merely the initial step in a longer research process, but significantly, because there is a lack of guidance on how to conduct such research. This paper argues that when the overall tourism research study involves the use of mixed methods, an initial exploratory stage conducted as part of a sequential research process, requires a systematic approach to achieve a reliable platform for further investigation. The paper shows how and why a systematic research design process in the exploratory stage can enhance the value of studies, when the initial qualitative stage is to be followed by a quantitative phase. Three phases of an exploratory qualitative research design process are identified: preparation, development and refinement. Criteria for assessing the suitability of qualitative data collection techniques are proposed. It is argued that careful attention to the process of designing the initial exploratory qualitative stage constitutes the necessary condition for achieving results that will form a sound basis for the next quantitative sequence of research. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourism product and service innovation to avoid ‘strategic drift’

Dealing with change in the external environment creates substantial challenges for tourism managers. Given the complexity of strategy formulation it is difficult for managers to analyse all aspects of their environment or establish precise objectives, consequently business strategies tend to be characterised by small strategic adjustments or ‘incrementalism’. However, these marginal adjustments of strategy within an organisation's existing culture may lead to strategic drift reflecting strategies that are inconsistent with changes taking place in the external environment. The paper begins with a brief overview of the global trends that comprise the remote environment of tourism organisations. It argues that the standard response of tourism organisations to changes in the remote environment can be characterised as ‘strategic incrementalism’. The paper also addresses the concern that strategic incrementalism can give rise to ‘strategic drift’. In the face of changing global trends the paper explores some of the barriers that must be overcome, discussing seven areas of importance on which managers can focus to assist them to avoid strategic drift. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourists’ destination image: an exploratory study of alternative tourism in Palestine

This study aims to understand how alternative tourism can contribute to the destination image of Palestine, given its negative image in the media. It proposes a framework for various destination image aspects and applies this framework in the context of alternative tourism in Palestine. It seeks to explore the key image formation factors, the perceived images of Palestine, and the post-visit behaviours of tourists who had engaged in alternative tourism in Palestine. This research contributes in fulfilling intriguing gaps in the Palestinian destination’s image literature, as well as the alternative tourism field that has emerged manifestly in Palestine. This study is exploratory in nature applying qualitative methodology by using open-ended questions in email interviews, and the interviews were analysed using thematic analysis. The empirical results proved that tourists who had visited Palestine and engaged in alternative tourism, had positive destination images, opposite to the ones portrayed in the media that show Palestine as a dangerous place to visit. Finally, this research provides academic and managerial implications.     

‘Be global,go local’ – innovation and creativity in the development of alternative guiding services in Budapest

Based on qualitative research methods, the paper explores the emergence of creativity and innovation in the development of guiding services, and analyses the cultural and spatial characteristics of alternative guided tours developed for niche markets in Budapest, Hungary. The study is part of a 3-year (2011–2014) research programme entitled ‘Creativity and its contribution to niche tourism development – following and creating trends’ that aimed to investigate the potential of niche tourism products in the Hungarian market. In order to understand the development process, characteristics and significance of alternative guiding in the city, a complex methodology of interviews, participant observation and content analysis of service providers’ websites and customers’ feedback on social media sites was used. The analysis suggests that although the impact of these alternative guided tours on the city’s tourist image is currently limited, they contribute to the repositioning of the destination and enrich its ambiance.     

The business model and balanced scorecard in creative tourism: the ultimate strategy boosters

Despite the various studies on creative tourism, little managerial frameworks such as a business model and a balanced scorecard are investigated for this new phenomenon. The overall image that emerges from the literature is ambiguous and fuzzy. Also, many activities known as creative tourism experiences may provide new participative experiences but rarely include a creative process. This study covers a whole aspect in designing a feasibility test model for creative experiences based on balanced scorecard through qualitative content analysis and as the essence of that, a Business Model by content validity and clustering analysis. Analysis of data by the mentioned methods reveals that four perspectives and 13 critical success factors are essential for the feasibility of a creative tourism experience. In addition, 22 indicators in 3 main dimensions determine the success of a creative tourism business model. This study is part of a growing body of research focused on discovering hidden aspects of creative tourism.     

Undiscovered Public Knowledge: The Potential of Research Synthesis Approaches in Tourism Research

Twenty years ago, Donald Swanson coined the term ‘Undiscovered Public Knowledge’ to refer to the product of the synthesis of previous research. In the current climate, in a range of disciplines relevant to tourism research (e.g. policy, management, economics and psychology) there has been an increasing interest in the maximisation and re-use of previous research through a range of research synthesis approaches. This discussion paper considers three such approaches – systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-interpretation – and their actual and potential application in tourism research. The paper contends that the use of such approaches can assist in ensuring that the tourism research enterprise generates cumulative bodies of knowledge built on the full use and exploitation of previous research results.     

Disentangling the tourism sector’s fragmentation: a hands-on coding/post-coding guide for interview and policy document analysis in tourism†

Qualitative tourism research is inevitably multidimensional. The fragmentation of the tourism sector across policy domains, scales, space and stakeholders leads to ‘blurry’ and aggregated datasets. Yet, tourism studies have a weak record in describing how results emanate from raw qualitative data. This paper presents a coding/post-coding scheme that proved robust in disentangling multidimensional tourism datasets in a middle-range research project that necessitated reflecting on the position of the researcher and the literature study during the data analysis. It describes the pragmatic decisions taken to organise the qualitative data from a research project on cross-border tourism and regional development processes. The paper also functions as a reflexive account of how this scheme came into existence. It contributes to the tools available to practically acknowledge the fragmentation of the tourism sector and the resulting multidimensional qualitative data, and calls for a more open accounting of the data analysis process and the underlying research values in tourism studies.     

Memory work versus memory-work and its utility in heritage tourism

This paper advocates researching the diverse, unstructured, idiosyncratic personal and autobiographical memories of individuals – visitors, tourists, local residents and geographically dispersed patrons associated with heritage resources and heritage tourism attractions. ‘Memory-work’, conceptualized by Frigga Haug and her collaborators in the 1980s as a feminist constructionist method, is differentiated from ‘memory work’ (without hyphen) as defined in the scholarly literature from different disciplines in the past three decades. For the purposes of this paper, memory work is then conceptualized as a qualitative, interpretivist research approach focused on memories, which employs a range of methodologies and techniques to elicit and ‘process’ memories, and draws on memory theory for analysis. It is argued that memory work can provide useful insights for academic knowledge production and applied research in heritage tourism. A few examples of specific research techniques are presented to illustrate the diverse spectrum of how memory work can be carried out in practice. It will moreover be discussed how memory distortion and ‘false memories’ are to be treated, how memory work differs from other qualitative modes of enquiry, and what its benefits and limitations are.