Tourism gateways and regional economies: the distributional impacts of MICE

The meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE) industry is a rapidly expanding sector of tourism world-wide, but particularly in the Asia Pacific region. Of the many challenges underlying development of this sector none is more important than determining the economic benefits from devoting resources to industry growth. The paper argues that although research has been undertaken on the economic impacts of MICE events and MICE destinations, regionally and nationally, the issue of the distribution of these benefits between tourism gateways and more remote regions has been neglected. The paper seeks to help remedy this neglect. It presents a framework for assessing the economic impacts of the MICE industry in a regional economy. It then illustrates how the framework can be used to compare economic impacts of MICE tourism in destination gateways and more remote areas, with the use of Australian data. The paper draws attention to the types of data deficiencies that seem to be endemic to estimating the economic impacts of MICE, and which constitute a barrier to informed public policy making and planning. Finally, the implications are discussed for development of MICE tourism generally. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Supporting the Principles of Sustainable Development in Tourism and Ecotourism: Government's Potential Role

This paper articulates the principles of sustainable development, sustainable tourism, and ecotourism, and their interrelationship, and explains the critical difference between growth and development, which are commonly confused. It discusses numerous activities during the course of the early 1990s, which arguably moved the government into a 'strong sustainability' mode, through its support of the principles of sustainable development, tourism, and ecotourism. The paper also briefly describes the reduction of government activities to support principles of sustainable development over the latter part of the decade, which moved the government to a weak sustainability mode. Supportive activities include integrated planning; cooperation and partnerships; public consultation; proactive research and education; environment protection and conservation; management of resources, impact and visitors; and green standards activities. The benefits for government support of principles of sustainability are briefly described.     

Community-Based Ecotourism Development on the Periphery of Belize

In addition to ecological interests, the sustainability debate among scholars is concerned with grassroots tourism development in terms of participatory planning and the spreading of economic benefits between more sectors of society. This paper examines these issues in the context of community-based ecotourism development on the southern periphery of Belize. The Toledo Ecotourism Association and its activities are described within the context of peripheral development and sustainability. It is argued that sustainable tourism initiatives in developing countries can be conceptualised and operationalised at a very smallscale, improve the lives of residents, provide enjoyment for tourists, and protect the natural and cultural environments. The paper also argues that peripheral locations and their characteristics can be instrumental in promoting local control of small-scale tourism.     

The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on French Tourism

This paper deals with the potential effects of climate change on tourism in France. It examines the implications of a scenario by Météo-France (doubling the concentration of CO2) with regards to the climatic requirements of tourists, according to the different seasons, regions and natural resources on which tourism is based.     

Network Robustness Index: A new method for identifying critical links and evaluating the performance of transportation networks

Highway planning efforts, especially those involving capacity expansions, have traditionally relied on the volume/capacity (V/C) ratio to identify “highly congested” or critical links, resulting in localized solutions that do not consider system-wide impacts. This paper presents a new, comprehensive, system-wide approach to identifying critical links and evaluating network performance. The approach considers network flows, link capacity and network topology. Moreover, it relies on readily available sources of data. Using three hypothetical networks, we demonstrate that the approach, known as the Network Robustness Index, yields different highway planning solutions than the traditional V/C ratio. Moreover, these solutions yield far greater system-wide benefits, as measured by travel-time savings, than solutions identified by the V/C ratio.     

Wellness Tourism in China: Resources,Development and Marketing

China's natural and cultural resources are the foremost offerings of the country's wellness tourism sector. Although wellness tourism in China is in its infancy, it can offer new opportunities in, and strengthen the overall competitiveness of, China's tourism industry. To achieve this, the assessment and development of wellness tourism resources in China are required. This study examines the potential for wellness tourism development in terms of resources and promotion from the point of view of wellness tourism experts. It surveys professionals working in tourism, health and education in China. The results reveal that environmental assets, including fresh air, clean water and natural features, are considered the most important attributes for the development of wellness tourism in China and that the promotion of wellness tourism can best be achieved through advertising in mass media, governmental support and organizing new regional events. The study implications and future research directions are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

“I am like a deaf,dumb and blind person”: Mobility and immobility of Chinese (im)migrants in Flushing,Queens, New York City

This paper contributes to research on daily mobility experience of (im)migrants in cities and expands the conceptualizations of mobility by examining intentionality and its relations to locality. Through place-based research on mobility and immobility of Chinese (im)migrants in Flushing, Queens, New York City, this paper explores: 1) mobility patterns of recent (im)migrants in an urban setting; 2) the constraints, resources and their coping strategies for everyday mobility; and 3) the dialectal relationship between voluntary and involuntary immobility, and between mobility and ethnic communities. This study reveals that immobility is not always the result of inaccessibility, but structural barriers in the broader society such as socioeconomic inequality and racial discrimination. Involuntary immobility encourages overdependence on locality. With its high place accessibility, Flushing provides (im)migrants with a plethora of ethnic mobile resources, as well as social networks and community resources. The relative immobility among Chinese (im)migrants in Flushing is compensated by the flows and movements of people, goods and information both at the local and transnational scale. The contrast between insider-ness and outsider-ness further enhances their attachment to the local community and discourages them from moving. Thus, locality mitigates involuntary immobility but paradoxically nurtures voluntary immobility that hinders the transfer of potential mobility to actual mobility, and physical mobility to social mobility. Without considering locality, stillness is easily mistaken for immobility; without considering intentionality, accessibility is easily equated to mobility. Therefore, solutions to transportation equity do not lie solely in transportation accessibility itself, but more broadly in individual capability, immigration policy, labor market equality and community development.     

The Moral Authority of Ecotourism: A Critique

The paper argues that in debates on the role of tourism in bringing about development in the developing world, ecotourism has acquired a certain moral authority. It is often compared favourably to other categories of tourism, most notably mass tourism, based on its ability to combine conservation and development, categories that are often considered to exist in an antagonistic relationship. The paper seeks to challenge this moral authority. Others have attempted to do this, typically arguing that ecotourism can lead to mass tourism and consequently the same destructive tendencies, or that it is simply conscience salving for the western middle class. However the argument put forward here is a different one – that ecotourism as a tool for integrated conservation and development, widely advocated within conservation non-governmental organisations (NGOs), ties communities’ development prospects to a pre-existing relationship with their immediate natural environment. Basing development upon this relationship may offer some benefits to local communities, but at the same time the championing of such eco-development precludes a discussion of thoroughgoing economic development, development that would transform this relationship. The paper concludes that the championing of ecotourism reflects low horizons for development and that its moral credentials are highly questionable.     

新财务清算政策下提高铁路城际列车效益的思考

近年来,铁路短途城际客运得到了很大的发展,开行城际列车已成为铁路运输企业新的经济增长点。新财务清算政策实施后,开行城际列车的效益受到一定程度的影响,针对存在的问题,就如何提高其效益水平进行了讨论。提出了完善开行结构、增加营业收入、减少客运付费、降低成本支出等建议措施。     

Prospects of basket production in promoting sustainable rural livelihoods in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

This paper uses the concept of sustainable rural livelihoods and income diversification to assess the role that basket making as a cultural tourism activity can play in improving rural livelihoods in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both primary and secondary data sources, this paper points out that shocks and natural causes such as drought, disease and changing flood levels in the Okavango River, particularly the drying of the Thaoge (one of the distributaries of the Okavango), have contributed to a decline in livestock and crop yields and increased poverty levels in the region. Therefore, alternative livelihood options that can diversify rural incomes from agricultural production need to be identified. This paper argues that basket making has the potential to diversify rural incomes and improve livelihoods in the Okavango. Baskets are a cultural tourism product that can raise income earning and employment opportunities for rural residents in the Okavango. For this to be successful, basket making will need to be developed as part of cultural tourism. A sustainable cultural tourism sector where baskets are key products requires the sustainable use of natural resources used for basket making. These resources are at present overharvested and are threatened with depletion. There is also a need to promote the empowerment of basket weavers particularly in entrepreneurship and managerial skills in the tourism business, attract young and educated people and promote the preservation of traditional basket making skills, which are important in the development of cultural tourism. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improved road accessibility and indirect development effects: evidence from rural Philippines

This paper develops earlier conceptual frameworks and methods for analyzing the indirect development effects of improved road accessibility. The creation of economic opportunity and response to economic opportunity are the two concepts used in the theoretical framework, while time-series data, a road accessibility inventory, and a multi-criteria analysis were the methods used to analyse the indirect effects among households and household firms. A weakness of many impact studies is that they merely chart aggregate economic development. The method employed here includes access to resources by various groups and therefore enables the focus to shift from mere aggregate economic development to also encompass equitable and sustainable social development. The study focused on a rural Philippine fishing community, previously characterized by poor transport conditions and poor accessibility to major markets. It found that the benefits of the road improvement were considerable and benefited a great majority of the population in the fishing community. In addition to the extensive direct effects of the improved road, a number of complementary factors led to substantial indirect effects. These included: abundance of harvested resource in the community; a potential for technical innovations that increased production and productivity; available investment to support this increased production; abundant demand for this increased production in the market region (the market widened in spatial terms and prices were maintained).     

A tale of two parks: Tibetan youths’ preferences for tourism community futures

This study explores young hosts’ identification of tourism resources and their perceptions of different tourism site management styles in a suburban village in Lhasa, Tibet. Two tourism parks with different management styles co-exist in the same village. One is collectively owned and managed by the community and the other is developed and managed by an outside company. Compared with previous tourism community research, this empirical study has four notable features: it focuses on a non-Western, emerging tourism community; compares responses to two different development approaches within a community; targets the emic views of the young local citizens; and connects the present with the future. A combination of research methods, including key informant interviews, photo-elicitation interviews, and a questionnaire-based survey were used in sequence. The study suggests that the Tibetan young hosts have clear views about tourism, the future, and their local resources. They strongly preferred the community-based style for the future, and their preferences extended to the kinds of tourists who visited the community-based property. The study adds empirical weight to the voices of those researchers who call for strong community control over local tourism resources as well as suggesting the benefits this approach may deliver.     

Community Based Tourism in Namibia: ‘Reality Show’ or ‘Window Dressing’?

Since the 1970s, the African continent has experienced exponential growth in tourism, where growth in numbers of visitors has not necessarily meant economic, social or environmental benefits for the host community. A review of the literature concerning tourism development and its effects on local communities forms the basis for the investigation of the reasons behind community based tourism (CBT) being identified as a tool for development in Namibia. An assessment of the planning and implementation phases of the CBT strategy enables consideration on the role played by international and national governments and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in laying down policies and providing proactive support for CBT related projects. This paper presents the results of an ongoing empirical research conducted since 2003 in the Kunene region of Namibia, which is an important part of the overall Namibian tourism destination, with world-renowned resources such as Etosha National Park, the Himba culture, Epupa Falls, the desert-adapted elephant and the rhino, to name just a few. By attempting an overall assessment of the Namibian current CBT situation, a set of considerations are offered with regard to its practicalities and in terms of benefits, problems and future outlooks for this sector.     

Service charge and capacity selection of an inland river port with location-dependent shipping cost and service congestion

The inland waterway transportation has attracted a lot of attention worldwide in the last fifteen years. This paper studies the location, service charge and capacity decision of an inland river port to maximize its revenue or profit. The cargo shippers are assumed to be uniformly distributed along the inland river and can be shipped to the junction port via pure road transportation service or transshipment service with the inland river port. The natural heterogeneity of the river’ navigational condition is modeled by a location-dependent waterway transportation cost and the service congestion on the port is captured by the M/M/1 queueing model. We analytically investigate the properties of the optimal solutions for various decision problems associated with the inland river port. The effects of the natural heterogeneity and port service congestion of those optimal solutions are investigated. Those theoretical results are carefully examined in the case study of the Yangtze River.     

From farmers and shepherds to shopkeepers and hoteliers: constituency-differentiated experiences of endogenous tourism in the Greek Island of Zakynthos

The effects exerted by endogenous tourism investment on the developing Greek island of Zakynthos are examined, focusing in particular on whether the experiences among residents, tourist enterprises and local government are homogeneous, or whether they reflect varied attitudes related to sociodemographic, destination, development-process and tourist characteristics. Multivariate analysis shows that the main factors contributing to the variance in locals' experiences of and reactions to tourism development are the endogenous nature associated with the early ‘development’ phase of the evolution cycle, inhabitant constituency, carrying capacity and tourist nationality. In addition, the protection and conservation of natural and sociocultural resources are revealed as serious concerns of the island's local government. Management strategies for visitor-impact alleviation should focus on community-based planning where the hosts' collective wisdom is incorporated into the overall development process and tourism policies are compatible with the physical and human components of the local society. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fostering community empowerment and capacity building through tourism: perspectives from Dullstroom,South Africa

This study observed tourism development in the popular South African destination of Dullstroom, Mpumalanga, and sought to identify the significant social benefits that have been fostered as a result. Dullstroom is synonymous with fly-fishing and is well-known throughout the country for its unique natural environment that is host to diverse flora and fauna. In the South African context, the impacts generated by tourism development on local communities have remained preoccupied with the economic benefits they deliver and rarely the important social gains that may also be developed. Between October 2012 and March 2013, a qualitative research methodology was developed to capture the views and experiences of 46 local employees (predominantly Non-white, South African females) and 16 owners or managers of local tourism-focused businesses. The findings reveal that tourism development has provided a number of positive impacts and that local community members encountered a number of benefits that ventured beyond economic factors. These benefits included empowerment through capacity building and the acquisition of positions that involved a high degree of responsibility, many of which would have been otherwise unobtainable but for the support of local tourism businesses. Others were afforded opportunities to pursue formal qualifications that enabled them to pursue dreams of senior positions or even new career paths beyond Dullstroom. The platforms that enabled these outcomes are discussed from the perspectives of both employers and employees in the local tourism economy.     

中国特色城镇化建设的铁路发展新模式

走中国特色城镇化道路对城市交通发展提出了新的要求,建设市域客运铁路是城市交通发展的新模式,符合中国特色城镇化建设需要,有利于转变铁路发展方式、推进铁路投融资体制改革,具有良好的社会效益。推进市域客运铁路建设必须重视与城市规划配套,科学合理选择线网构架,加强与其他交通运输方式衔接,注意资源节约和环境保护,并给予必要的政策支持。     

Managing the Cedars of Lebanon: Botanical Gardens or Living Forests?

Lebanon receives about 750,000 visitors a year, attracted by a diverse tourism portfolio with an increasing emphasis on cultural and ecotourism. It was once covered in cedar forest, with the great trees still acting both as metaphor and brand for the country. Today, there are several areas where cedars may still be seen, the most important being the Chouf Reserve, in the Jabal el Barouk mountains near the Bekaa valley, and the famous cedars of the Quadisha valley in north Lebanon (a World Heritage Site since 1998), near the town of Becharre, the centre of Lebanon's ski industry. This paper examines the management of the isolated grove of giant cedar trees at Becharre which has become a sterile botanical garden, and compares it with the living forests of the Chouf Cedar Reserve. The fundamental question being asked here is whether or not World Heritage designation of this natural resource has had conservation benefits, and if such benefits outweigh diminished experience quality for visitors.     

A Content Analysis of Ecotourism Definitions

One of the most habitual practices in the sub-field of ecotourism, from both academic and industry perspectives, is the development of definitions. Although the reasons for such a proliferation of definitions is unknown, it appears as though the trend will continue. This research sought to better understand the concept of ecotourism through an examination of 85 definitions of the term (chiefly from the perspective of 20 variables), using a content analysis methodology. The variables most frequently cited in the definitions include: (i) reference to where ecotourism occurs, e.g. natural areas; (2) conservation; (3) culture; (4) benefits to locals; and (5) education. From the perspective of time, the data indicate that the years ranging from 1991 to 1996, were the most productive in terms of the development of ecotourism definitions, and more specifically 1994 to 1996, when a number of the most comprehensive of these were coined. Conservation, education, ethics, sustainability, impacts and local benefits were variables which were better represented in the more recent definitions, showing a changing emphasis in how the term has been conceptualised over time.     

Moving beyond visitor satisfaction to loyalty in nature-based tourism: a review and research agenda

Nature-based tourism is increasing worldwide and with it the opportunity to engage these visitors to support and advocate for the protection of natural areas. Loyalty research over the last decade provides a platform for action. Analysing loyalty as an important focus for nature-based tourism research and then proposing a research agenda are the aims of this paper. These aims are achieved by (1) reviewing the place of satisfaction and its relationship to loyalty in nature-based tourism research; (2) analysing recent loyalty and related behavioural intentions research; and (3) proposing a research agenda to further progress loyalty research. Conducting field-based experiments to determine the influence of improving service quality on loyalty and further investigating a suite of items of varying commitment for measuring loyalty (from recommending a destination to others to volunteering to work there) are pivotal to the proposed agenda. Also central are further elaborating and testing the measurement model for loyalty, with place attachment and pursuit of benefits, such as escaping from everyday life and appreciating nature, suggested as promising antecedents to loyalty. The importance of natural areas to society warrants urgent attention to the loyalty-centred research agenda detailed in this paper.