Evaluation of voluntary travel behaviour change: Experiences from three continents

The past 20 years has seen a rapid growth across the world in the number, range and scale of voluntary travel behaviour change (VTBC) initiatives. These so-called ‘soft’ measures have challenged the assumption that modal shift is only possible through ‘hard’ system-based measures, or through regulation. Among the most high-profile VTBC initiatives is a household-based behaviour change technique known as Individualised Travel Marketing. This dialogue marketing approach was developed by Socialdata (under the brand name IndiMark^®) in response to its own research suggesting that a lack of information and motivation, and incorrect perceptions of the alternatives to the car, were significant barriers to modal shift. IndiMark has been applied in more than 100 pilot and nearly 150 large-scale projects, targeting a total of more than three million people on three continents. A key factor in this widespread take up has been the consistent use of a detailed evaluation design, employing travel behaviour surveys before and after the IndiMark intervention, using Socialdata's KONTIV^® survey method. This well-established design uses a self-administered, mail-back questionnaire, coupled with motivation by post and telephone to encourage high response rates (typically between 60% and 80%) helping to provide reliable data on mobility behaviour. This paper reviews the development of the IndiMark technique and the key features of its evaluation using the KONTIV^® survey method. It draws on this experience to address key challenges in the evaluation of VTBC initiatives, and to identify the common threads of an integrated approach which might strengthen the case for all soft measures.     

Ecological tourism in the state image policy structure. Experience and problems of modern Russia

The article deals with the problems of ecological tourism in Russia. The authors give various approaches to the understanding of ecological tourism in modern science, analyse the reasons of interest in this kind of tourism, consider its types and identify specific features. The article provides an overview of the main regions and countries where ecological tourism is developed at a high level and considers some national policy models in the field of ecological tourism. Specific attention is paid to the analysis of the development of ecological tourism in Russia and its current status; the examples of different programmes aiming at support of ecological tourism are given. Specific impetus is given to Russia's resources for the development of ecological tourism, for example, natural landscapes, national parks and nature heritage sites. The authors explore the main challenges to ecological tourism in Russia, identify factors that hinder its development and suggest measures to improve the ecological tourism in the Russian Federation. The authors focus on the projects that promote the improvement of Russia's image as an eco-touristic destination. The authors pay specific attention to the analysis of international cooperation in this field. The article discusses various projects carried out within the framework of bilateral cooperation. The article discusses the role of ecological tourism as a tool for image policy. The article analyses in detail which elements of the Russian image are under the influence of ecological tourism and what are the future prospects of ecological tourism.     

Repertory Grid Analysis in Group Settings to Elicit Salient Destination Image Attributes

Although repertory grid analysis (RGA) was originally developed in clinical psychology, the technique has been adapted for use in a diverse range of fields. However, the technique is rarely addressed in marketing research texts and has not been fully utilised in the tourism literature. Also, RGA applications have predominantly been reported in the form of personal interviews. The paper reports the first trial of RGA to elicit salient destination image attributes using group settings. This is a replication study, which is compared to a previous application of the technique that involved personal interviews. A key disadvantage of the group settings was the inability to probe participants. Nevertheless, it is suggested the approach provides researchers both an efficient and effective exploratory means for understanding how travellers differentiate a competitive set of destinations. This technique is particularly useful in the development of a structured questionnaire to operationalise destination image.     

Testing the impact of a promotional video on destination image change: application of China as a tourism destination

This study empirically examines the potential effects of a promotional video on the image change of China as a travel destination. The analysis is based on an experimental study conducted among young, international short‐term employees in the USA. Despite positive changes in almost all the destination attributes as a result of watching the promotional video, the structure of the image constructs remains fairly stable, providing critical insights on the potential role of publicity campaigns in affecting destination images. Results of the study reveal that China's image consists of mixed and often contrasting representations, especially the polarity of modernisation and progress versus nature and history. It was found that the dominant factor affecting the respondents' behavioural intentions was the cultural and nature tourism dimension. Although other image dimensions exhibit influence as well, findings of this study suggest that perceived value should be a strategic focus in promoting China as a desirable travel destination, in addition to culture and nature tourism. This paper ends with conclusions and implications for both research on destination image and destination marketing in China. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon emission values in cost benefit analyses

New infrastructure projects may affect CO₂ emissions and, thus, cost benefit analyses for these projects require a value to apply for CO₂. This may be based on the marginal social cost of emissions or on the shadow price resulting from present and future policies. This paper argues that both approaches are necessary, but for cost benefit analysis of infrastructure projects the latter should be the primary tool. A series of complications arise when applying this principle in practice. These are discussed in the paper. Even if the complications make the implementation of a shadow price approach difficult, we argue that the approach still is preferable to a social cost approach.     

Norway's urban toll rings: Evolving towards congestion charging?

The role of various types of road user tolls has been an important part of Norwegian transport development for a number of years. There are now around 50 such projects in operation around the country. This paper examines the urban toll ring projects and presents results from new research into the schemes in Norway's three largest cities: Oslo, Bergen and Trondheim. The research indicates that key decisions are being debated as to whether the schemes will continue as toll rings, be stopped completely or transformed into more of a demand management style policy. Interviews with road and local authorities have shown that the feelings are mixed and that the decision will depend on various transport, social, organisational and political factors.This paper reviews the cases of Bergen, Oslo and Trondheim and documents the latest developments in each scheme. The theory behind the application of the toll rings is explored through the case studies. Despite all the projects being implemented by similar networks, each scheme developed its own individual characteristics. These are laid alongside the economic and transport benefits with which they have been associated. The Strategic Policy Niche Management framework is used to analyse various aspects of the toll projects and identify key lessons. The effect these might have on future UK projects is also discussed.     

Strategies for collaborative funding of intermodal airport ground access projects

Projects to improve airport ground access not only provide important intermodal connections but can also present difficult funding challenges. This paper reviews the recent literature on funding airport ground access projects as well as some of the wider literature on funding transportation projects in general in the United States (U.S.) that is indirectly relevant to airport ground access projects. This is followed by a review of current U.S. federal transportation funding programs relevant to airport ground access projects, as well as a discussion of state and local funding programs and potential opportunities for private sector funding. The paper then describes several case studies of airport ground access project funding that were undertaken as part of this research. Based on this discussion, the paper discusses potential funding strategies for intermodal airport ground access projects in the U.S., requirements for effective implementation of these strategies, and a recommended approach to facilitate successful project development and implementation. It also presents recommended changes to the transportation funding program rules and regulations in the U.S. that could facilitate and simplify the development of intermodal solutions to meet future airport ground access needs.     

Demand and operating cost forecasting accuracy for toll road projects

Inaccurate forecasts represent a major source of risk in road and toll projects because they could result in financial difficulties or even bankruptcy. This paper focuses on demand and operating cost forecasting accuracy for Norwegian toll projects by comparing the forecasted and actual levels of traffic and operating costs. The differences among the types of projects and the effects of project size, time and demand ramp-up are also examined. Our study finds that traffic forecasts for Norwegian toll projects are fairly accurate, on average. However, a majority of the investigated projects experienced overestimation, and a huge general error in the forecasts suggests that this is also a source of risk that merits greater scrutiny. Inaccuracies are common among all project types and sizes. Operating costs are frequently underestimated; on average, these costs are about 30% higher than estimated.     

The moderating effect of personal and situational characteristics in behavioural factors affecting ports of call

This research aims to study the moderating effects of cruise passengers’ gender, age, education, and prior experiences on a Mediterranean port of call destination image formation and the influence that image and passenger satisfaction has on future behavioural intentions. The partial least squares technique is applied to test the hypotheses developed with a sample of 492 cruise passengers. Our findings show that (1) gender, age, education, and experience have a moderating influence on the image of ports of call, on cruise passengers’ satisfaction, and on future behavioural intentions derived from cruise passengers’ satisfaction; (2) prior experience has a moderating influence on the image formation of ports of call.     

Is the financing of tourism by international financial institutions inclusive? A proposal for measurement

It is acknowledged that tourism can have a great potential for reducing poverty; however, the growth of tourism has stagnated in financially excluded areas because of the difficulty local tourism businesses have in accessing the financial system. International financial institutions advocate the promotion of tourism as a development tool and in the fight against financial exclusion. This paper presents a tool for measuring whether the performance of these organizations is inclusive regarding tourism financing. The results obtained from applying this tool to the analysis of projects in Latin America and the Caribbean show that the financing provided for tourism projects in this region is not inclusive.     

Cost overruns in road construction—what are their sizes and determinants?

This paper investigates the statistical relationship between actual and estimated costs of road construction using data from Norwegian road construction over the years 1992–1995. Based on this data a regression model is developed. The findings reveal a discrepancy between estimated and actual costs, with a mean cost overrun of 7.9% ranging from −59% to +183%. In absolute terms, cost overruns amounted to a formidable 519 million Norwegian kroners. One particular new finding that has not been shown before in previous studies is that cost overruns appear to be more predominant among smaller projects as compared to larger ones. This observation, for the Norwegian road sector in particular, leads us to assert that the greatest potential for cost savings lies in exerting pressure on smaller projects to control their costs. Other factors found to influence the size of cost overruns include completion time of the projects and the regions where projects are situated. Surprisingly, neither project type nor work force type seems to influence the level of cost overrun. Finally, the paper proposes some policy implications.     

Network effects and total economic impact in transport appraisal

It is sometimes claimed that transport infrastructure projects have network effects, which are not taken into account in the appraisal of these projects. This paper reviews the concept of network effects, relates this to transport appraisal practice, and links to the concept of ‘total economic impact’. The limitations of transport modelling and appraisal in estimating total economic impact are reviewed. Good quality appraisals should be capable of picking up relevant network effects in the transport market, but the state of the art remains limited on the linkages between transport and the wider economy.     

Influence of reference points in ex post evaluations of rail infrastructure projects

The paper study the effect of different reference points in time regarding the ‘before’ and ‘after’ situation and how this may influence the ex post evaluation. Four Norwegian railway projects are analysed ex post. We have found that the choice of reference points that are chosen to represent the situation before and after a project, respectively, will often have a major impact on the result of an evaluation. In fact, the studied projects can be presented as either successes or failures, depending on the choice of reference years. The parameters used in this comparison are punctuality, frequency, travel time, and number of travellers. Four projects have been studied. Four parameters for each project generate a total of 16 indicators. By selecting certain years as reference years, 11 of the 16 indicators can be presented as either an increase or decrease. Stakeholders with a biased agenda towards certain projects can actually pick reference years to present the outcome of projects in a way that that fit their agenda. It is recommended that more than one measurement approach is applied in ex post evaluations.     

广德站维修机构布局优化方案研究

广德站维修机构采用分专业独立设置,为使广德站维修机构由传统分专业维修模式逐步向集中化、协同化的综合维修模式转变。在分析广德站既有维修机构布局现状的基础上,结合广德站实际情况,通过分析既有布局存在问题,提出广德站综合维修机构布局优化、广德站综合维修基地布置方案,实现生活保障管理一体化和必要的生产设施共享,充分利用既有设备设施,实现生产生活设施与综合维修模式相适应,为既有线改建过程中综合维修机构设置提供借鉴。     

Polar super seaways? Maritime transport in the Arctic: an analysis of shipowners’ intentions

The seasonal melting of sea ice in the Arctic Ocean, which has been confirmed for several summers in a row and is widely documented, has become a hot topic in the media. It is fuelling many speculative scenarios about the purported renewal of a “cold war”, or even an actual armed conflict, in the Arctic, for the control of both its natural resources and its sea routes.The melting sea ice is indeed giving a second wind to projects, abandoned in the 19th century, to find shorter sea routes between Europe and Asia. A look at the map shows the savings in distance that can be achieved with the Arctic routes: for example, a trip between London and Yokohama through the Northwest Passage is 15,700 km and 13,841 km through the Northeast Passage, which is significantly shorter than the route through Suez (21,200 km) or Panama (23,300 km).² These findings fuel the idea that these Arctic routes, because they are shorter, are bound to attract abundant through traffic, and consequently will become a major political issue. Amid the media widespread image of a future maritime highway across Arctic seas, even some scientists yield to the popular image and assert, without proof, that Arctic traffic is set to increase rapidly.³ Beyond the seemingly decisive advantage of Arctic routes, however, there remain many obstacles to navigation (Lasserre, 2010d). In addition, these scenarios for the development of marine traffic in the Arctic remain highly speculative and are not based on an analysis of shipowners’ perceptions, which is the goal of this paper.This article will thus present the results of an empirical survey conducted among shipping companies to determine their interest in developing activities in the Arctic. Besides examining the potential development of shipping in Arctic routes, this research must be replaced in the context of intense competition between shippers, competition that makes both service reliability and costs of transport paramount. In this competition structure, the benefits of established routes between major hubs seems to prevail, so that new routes have difficulty being established.     

Planning for competitive port expansion on the U.S. Eastern Seaboard: the case of the Savannah Harbor Expansion Project

With the expansion of the Panama Canal, port cities along the U.S. Eastern Seaboard are competing to attract the increased trade expected once the project is complete in 2015. Competition includes extensive investment in projects for port expansion, dredging, and multimodal transportation for greater hinterland connectivity, fueled in part by uncoordinated federal port investments without a larger strategic vision for national port and trade infrastructure. One of the competing ports is in Savannah, Georgia, which is the country’s fourth busiest container port. Savannah is about to embark on a $652 million project that will dredge thirty-two miles of the Savannah River from 42 to 47 feet to attract and accommodate Post-Panamax container ships. The paper analyzes the geographic coastal impacts of port competition, and looks at the unique circumstances of the Greater Savannah Metropolitan Region in planning for future growth of its port. The case illustrates the geographic tensions of uncoordinated maritime freight and logistics planning with fragile coastal and riparian ecologies. The dramatic interventions in port excavation also demonstrate how global forces of technological change and port expansions in other parts of the world are reshaping local geographies.     

Benefits of shift from car to active transport

There is a growing awareness that significant benefits for our health and environment could be achieved by reducing our use of cars and shifting instead to active transport, i.e. walking and bicycling. The present article presents an estimate of the health impacts due to a shift from car to bicycling or walking, by evaluating four effects: the change in exposure to ambient air pollution for the individuals who change their transportation mode, their health benefit, the health benefit for the general population due to reduced pollution and the risk of accidents. We consider only mortality in detail, but at the end of the paper we also cite costs for other impacts, especially noise and congestion. For the dispersion of air pollution from cars we use results of the Transport phase of the ExternE project series and derive general results that can be applied in different regions. We calculate the health benefits of bicycling and walking based on the most recent review by the World Health Organization. For a driver who switches to bicycling for a commute of 5 km (one way) 5 days/week 46 weeks/yr the health benefit from the physical activity is worth about 1300 €/yr, and in a large city (>500,000) the value of the associated reduction of air pollution is on the order of 30 €/yr. For the individual who makes the switch, the change in air pollution exposure and dose implies a loss of about 20 €/yr under our standard scenario but that is highly variable with details of the trajectories and could even have the opposite sign. The results for walking are similar. The increased accident risk for bicyclists is extremely dependent on the local context; data for Paris and Amsterdam imply that the loss due to fatal accidents is at least an order of magnitude smaller than the health benefit of the physical activity. An analysis of the uncertainties shows that the general conclusion about the order of magnitude of these effects is robust. The results can be used for cost-benefit analysis of programs or projects to increase active transport, provided one can estimate the number of individuals who make a mode shift.     

Understanding and measuring tourist destination images

A destination image is ‘the expression of all objective knowledge, impressions, prejudice, imaginations, and emotional thoughts an individual or group might have of a particular place’ (Lawson and Baud Bovy, 1977 ). Destination images influence a tourist's travel decision-making, cognition and behaviour at a destination as well as satisfaction levels and recollection of the experience. This paper looks at the concept of tourist destination images and how destination image research has been approached from different academic disciplines and by practitioners such as tourism marketers. In particular, different techniques for the measurement of a tourist's destination images are reviewed and the dominance of structured, word-based approaches is highlighted. This paper adds to previous work that has listed the main attributes used in image studies by including recent studies, many of which are Australian. In the paper it is argued that to provide valid image research, a preliminary phase of qualitative research is important in order to distil the constructs relevant to the population being studied. Construct elicitation techniques, such as free-elicitation, interactive interviews and focus group interviews, are discussed along with new techniques that include the visual aspect of image, such as photo-elicitation. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Accessing the divine and the past: Jerusalem's cable car dilemmas

Transport is usually viewed as means to get tourists to their destinations and to move about the destinations. Hence, transport projects intended to improve access by tourists to and within destinations are largely assessed according to their contribution to visitors' satisfaction. Yet, not all tourist destinations are the same. Heritage and religious destinations are particular sets of destinations. This paper seeks to identify the issues that have to be discussed when considering transport projects to such destinations. To this end the proposed cable car to the City of David and Western Wall in Jerusalem is discussed. On the basis of some of the objections raised against this project the underlying dilemmas are identified. The main dilemmas and issues raised are whether it is indeed desirable and appropriate to improve access to historic sites that may be over-crowded, what are the equity facets of such transport projects, particularly the distribution of benefits and cost between locals and tourists, and to what extent do the transport projects contribute to the heretization of such site – the social and political processes involved in presenting the story of such sites.