旅游目的地地格的理论源流、本质与测度指标

全球化背景下,在旅游目的地开发与营销过程中忽视了地方的本质特征,旅游目的地竞争走向“无地方性”与“无个性”的地方趋同陷阱。地格理论融合地理学的地方性理论、营销学的品牌个性理论、旅游学的推拉理论以及管理学的资源基础论,提出旅游目的地开发与营销成功的关键是以地格为依托,即关注目的地长期积累形成的生活方式的本质特征,避免地方趋同。本文指出具有代表力、吸引力与竞争力的旅游地格是旅游目的地的品牌基因,还从旅游目的地政府、游客和居民视角出发,运用定性与定量相结合的方法,创建了由自然环境、人文环境与群体性格组成的地格因子体系。     

Tourism Sustainability and Health Impacts in High Altitude Adventure,Cultural and Ecotourism Destinations: A Case Study of Nepal's Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is an ACE (adventure, cultural and ecotourism) high altitude destination. Many researchers argue that tourism development in the region is not sustainable and does not comply with ecotourism concepts. They report that SNP suffers considerable environmental, sociocultural and economic impacts. Health issues, despite the number of ailments commonly experienced by tourists, remain neglected in tourism literature. This study aims to investigate the health consequences of visiting SNP. Seven hundred and fifty questionnaires were given out during three separate seasons in 1999, of which 448 completed usable questionnaires were returned giving a 59.7% response rate. The results showthat despite good travel preparation, the majority of tourists (89.4%) suffer some form of health ailment. The most common ailments are mountain sickness, musculoskeletal pain, diarrhoea and respiratory infection. The study also shows several significant relationships between the incidence of health ailments and demographic profiles, motivation and satisfaction. It proposes that for high altitude ACE destinations like SNP, health issues should be a core component of destination management in order to ensure the sustainability of tourism development. High risk groups should be identified and tourism education should be targeted to both tourists and locals.     

Fashioning a destination tourism future: The case of Slovenia

Achieving competitive advantage for any destination in times of rapid global change requires tourism stakeholders to have a clear understanding of the direction of change and its implications for business or destination management. The challenges are particularly acute for emerging destinations such as Slovenia. The paper discusses tools for measuring destination performance with particular focus on Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA). Using IPA the paper develops a priority ordering for Slovenian tourism stakeholders to debate, modify and to adopt actions that can help them prepare for the challenges arising from global trends. The survey instrument used for this study asks respondents to highlight both the important areas that should be addressed by tourism stakeholders in Slovenia and also the performance of Slovenia in respect of the success or otherwise of the strategies that are currently being pursued to enhance destination competitiveness. The findings reveal that there are a number of areas in which the Slovene tourism industry considers itself to be underperforming in the implementation of strategies to eliminate drift. The paper explores some of the implications of the findings for strategic action and implementation, making some concluding comments on destination development strategy while highlighting areas for further research.     

Influencing factors and formation process of cultural inheritance-based innovation at heritage tourism destinations

Cultural inheritance-based innovation (CIBI) is based on paradoxical phenomena and its development clarifies conflicts between cultural inheritance and innovative development at heritage tourism destinations (HTDs). This study uses innovation systems theory and qualitative methods to explore the influencing factors and formation process of CIBI. Our findings demonstrate that CIBI is influenced by multilevel factors of the environment, government, enterprises and public, encompassing basic innovation management conditions and sociocultural constraints. Moreover, CIBI is a process that counterbalances the paradoxical elements of cultural inheritance and innovation through innovation system support. This study deepens the understanding of the paradoxical relationship between heritage conservation and innovation. By incorporating cultural inheritance constraints, it extends the framework of factors influencing cultural innovation at tourism destinations (TDs) and enriches related process research. Additionally, our results provide insights into the paradoxical management and synergistic promotion of cultural inheritance and innovation at HTDs.     

Mountain bike tourism in Austria and the Alpine region – towards a sustainable model for multi-stakeholder product development

This paper interrogates the polarized and heated discussions about mountain bike tourism in Austrian forests, with several organizations favoring permitting biking on all forest roads, using claimed tourism development opportunities, while other stakeholders including hikers, hunters and landowners wish to restrict development. An international literature review on the value and impacts of mountain biking shows that both sides have oversimplified complex cases. The paper draws on 12 in-depth interviews with Austrian tourism destination and mountain bike experts to find ways forward. Results suggest that in Austria, bike tourism will increase in the future, supported by new bike technology, including electric bikes and new hand-held route information technology. It notes the complexity of the market for mountain and other forms of cycle tourism, and the pressing need to create not more trails but more sophisticated tourism products, including appealing and well-maintained trails plus attractive leisure infrastructure (bike rental, service and repair facilities, attractive localities, accommodation suited to the mountain bikers’ needs, etc.). Collaborative planning with all stakeholders, better trail construction standards adapted to differing preferences, needs and environmental conditions as well as clear standards for monitoring are prerequisites of an Austrian strategy for sustainable cycle tourism development and management, which can be replicated elsewhere.     

Expenditure-Based Segmentation of a Mountain Destination Tourist Market

Although tourism is one of the most dynamic economic activities worldwide, few studies have been conducted on the potential role of market segmentation based on visitors' expenditure level at the destination in order to define strategies for maximizing the economic benefits of tourism for local destinations. This study extends the research undertaken in this area by identifying different clusters of visitors, in a Portuguese mountain destination, according to the level and patterns of visitors' expenditure during the visit. Four distinct segments were identified and show statistically significant differences regarding their economic relevance for the destination, sociodemographic profile, and trip behavior. This study contributes to the discussion of analytical marketing tools available in the context of destination planning, aiming at the definition of strategies that may maximize the economic contribution of tourism for local economic development.     

The Problems and Prospects of Sustainable Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The objective of this paper is to assess the problems and prospects of sustainable tourism development in developing countries with special reference to the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both secondary and primary data sources, this paper points out that tourism in developing countries does not always adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism development. In the Okavango Delta, the tourism industry is designed to meet the interests of tourists from developed countries and is dominated by foreign safari companies. The tourism industry in the Okavango Delta does not significantly take into consideration the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of the host economy. It is characterised by: the marginalisation of local companies and investors; leakages and repatriation of tourism revenue from Botswana to developed countries; the failure of tourism to promote rural development and poverty alleviation; and, the failure to observe local environmental regulations to conserve the Okavango Delta as a natural ecosystem. This paper argues that, despite these problems, such destinations have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development. This requires a planning process that satisfies the needs of tourists and tour operators while being sensitive to the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of host countries and destinations.     

The role of individual entrepreneurs in the development of competitiveness for a rural tourism destination – A case study

The aim of this case study is to increase our understanding of the role of entrepreneurs in enhancing the competitiveness of a rural tourism destination. A literature review of the research on destination competitiveness with a focus on the roles of different stakeholders is first presented, followed by a narrative about rural tourism development, the competitiveness of rural destinations and the role of entrepreneurs in establishing successful destinations. The data consists of six case studies and nine semi-structured interviews among tourism entrepreneurs and managers at a rural tourism destination in Finland. The findings challenge the prevailing DMO dominated approach to destination competitiveness development, and call for the acknowledgment of collaboration between small tourism enterprises in the enhancement of rural destinations. Municipalities have a crucial role as facilitators of the entrepreneurial environment, but without innovative, committed, and risk-taking entrepreneurs no destination will flourish.     

The influence of artistically recreated nature on the image of tourist destinations: Lanzarote's art,cultural and tourism visitor centres and their links to sustainable tourism marketing

Can distinctive natural assets in tourist destinations be artistically recreated and used to improve destination image and attract more visitors? This paper analyses the formation of the tourist image based on artistically recreated local nature icons, and shows how those images can enhance the overall destination image. It focuses on the island of Lanzarote, a destination with its development based on promoting an environmental image founded on the creation of a network of multifunctional, high-quality art, culture and tourism centres exhibiting artistic recreation of its unique environmental assets. The methodology utilizes a questionnaire (n = 453) structural equations modelling approach in which the overall image of the destination is directly dependent on the image of the environmental conditions and indirectly influenced by the image of the artistically recreated centres. Results show that the destination's image is significantly grounded on the image of the art, culture and tourism centres using art based on Lanzarote's natural assets. They suggest that destinations have relevant opportunities to artistically enhance natural assets to improve their tourist image and marketing, that quality multi-functional visitor centres can be important within a sustainable tourism policy, and part of the emerging breadth of approaches taken by sustainable tourism marketing.     

A network perspective of knowledge transfer in tourism

Efficient transfer of knowledge is the prerequisite for innovation and competitiveness of tourism destinations. This paper uses network analysis to examine inter-organizational knowledge transfer in Western Australian tourism. The findings indicate that Western Australian network has low connectivity and is highly centralized around public bodies with a hierarchical pattern. The network also exhibits few reciprocal relationships with limited boundary spanners. The findings improve the understanding of the Western Australian tourism knowledge network, its weaknesses and strengths, which can be used to make policies to have a more efficient and innovative destination. In addition, this research provides a model for future research of how to explore and analyze the inter-organizational transfer of knowledge within a tourism destination.     

Social capital and entrepreneurial mobility in early-stage tourism development: A case from rural China

Early-stage tourism destinations often seek external capital to establish, invest and participate in tourism businesses at various levels. Entrepreneurial mobility at these destinations is thus an important phenomenon in need of further exploration both empirically and theoretically. This study uses an early-stage destination in rural China as a case to explore the experiences of inward entrepreneurial migrants in tourism development and associates their mobility, geographical and organisational, with dimensions of social capital, including institutional support, community openness and personal social networks. Primary interview data were collected from inward tourism entrepreneurs, key local community members and government officials related to tourism projects. The findings suggest that the inward entrepreneurs had unrealistic perceptions of the tourism industry before they entered. Entrepreneurial mobility in tourism development is influenced by all three social capital dimensions. The integration with the locality enhances the potential contribution of entrepreneurial mobility to tourism development.     

Communicating sustainability through a destination’s website: a checklist to inform,motivate, and engage stakeholders

This study investigated sustainability communication through destination websites. In particular, it suggested an online sustainability communication checklist (OSC-Checklist) that informs, motivates, and engages stakeholders to contribute towards the development of environmental, sociocultural, and economic sustainability. The OSC-Checklist was applied to the official websites of the top 50 competitive destinations with the aim of evaluating the extent to which each destination communicates sustainability on its website. The results indicated that the sample destinations lack an appropriate online approach to communicate sustainability. The results also revealed that the less developed and competitive destinations scored higher in terms of communicating sustainability than other more competitive developed destinations. Theoretical and practical implications are also provided.     

Leadership and Innovation Processes—Development of Products and Services Based on Core Competencies

SUMMARY

The new challenge for destinations is to professionalize the continuous development process of innovative products and services. In this context, innovation is regarded as a bipolar process between market and resources. From the resource-oriented perspective, the concentration on regional core competencies will therefore become a source of innovation for destinations while the customer is the source of innovation from the market-oriented perspective. Resulting from the nature of the destination product, the innovation process is interpreted as an inter-organizational network process. The aim has to be the implementation of continuous innovation processes in the form of networks within a system of a learning destination. Given the fact that, especially for innovative activities, networks play a minor role in tourism at present, the question is raised of how to overcome the obstacles of cooperation and to initiate network activities to foster innovation networks within a destination. A study was conducted that focused on the identification of forms of cooperation that strengthen and reinforce innovative behavior in a destination. The article aims at discussing the enhancement of the attractiveness and the quality of innovative network activities by increasing the value of cooperation for the providers of the destination.     

Entrepreneurial reputation in destination networks

Only few scientific contributions have attempted to analyze the patterns of governance and major stakeholders in destination networks. This paper seeks to investigate the role of entrepreneurship in destinations with the major aims laying in the identification of relevant factors of destination governance and analyses of entrepreneurs’ impact on this process. Due to the great complexity of destination networks and the process characteristic of governance, a qualitative research approach was chosen. Case study research was conducted in four Austrian tourism destinations. Results unveil the importance of entrepreneurial reputation of actors, density of strong ties in the destination network and informal relationships between actors for destination governance. This paper concludes with recommendations for future research in the field of destination governance.     

Supporting innovation for tourism development through multi-stakeholder approaches: Experiences from Africa

Innovation and entrepreneurship provide essential value to the advancement and quality of the international tourism industry. For Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) tourism innovation is an opportunity to differentiate the tourism product making it more competitive and increasing socio-economic gains at grassroots level counteracting foreign currency leakages from the destination. The paper argues that for small indigenous businesses in LEDC destinations to flourish a supportive environment promoting innovation and entrepreneurship is required. The paper emphasises the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration by drawing on two distinct African case studies: a trade association in The Gambia and a training programme building entrepreneurial capacity in a university in Tanzania both of which have helped provide supportive environments for indigenous entrepreneurship and innovation. The Gambian case study is based on a collaborative marketing approach, the Tanzanian case study on the Triple Helix model. Both demonstrate the importance of institutional support in stimulating networking, transfer of knowledge and best practice in LEDC destinations.     

The role of community involvement and number/type of visitors on tourism impacts: A controlled comparison of Annapurna, Nepal and Northwest Yunnan, China

Tourism development in mountain regions is reported to bring economic growth to host communities. However, the literature reveals that the economic, environmental and cultural impacts of tourism development in these regions vary greatly and that a number of critical factors may explain that variability. Therefore, the purpose of this paper was to explore the role of community involvement and number/type of visitors on tourism impacts in mountain destinations. The study followed a controlled comparison method [Eggan, F. (1954). Social anthropology and the method of controlled comparison. American Anthropologist, 56(5), 743–763] including field observations and individual and group interviews in two popular mountain destinations in Asia: Annapurna, Nepal, and Northwest Yunnan, China. The findings suggested that level of host involvement in management and number/type of tourists helped explain these destinations’ varying degrees of economic leakage, local control, and socio-economic inequity. Moreover, both destinations appeared to cope with their challenges through cooperative community efforts supported by non-governmental agencies.     

Measuring comparative destination performance: A study in Spain and Turkey

Abstract

Competitiveness between tourist destinations has increased due to the development of international tourism activity over the last two decades. This brings the importance of the assessment of destination performance vis‐à‐vis other similar and competing destinations. Therefore, this study attempts to develop an approach for the measure of destination performance and its comparison with another destination by using the data obtained from the actual tourists visiting both places. Two types of questionnaire are developed and their findings are found to be consistent. Empirical findings indicate that each destination has its own strengths. Implications and limitations of the study are also discussed.     

The potential of international coastal mass tourism destinations to generate creative capital

This paper introduces a new line of research in international coastal mass tourism destinations. Such destinations have started to function in a more complex and potentially beneficial way, acting as transitional areas between the global city and local territory while at the same time developing their own unique characteristics. From this perspective, such destinations can potentially become environments for creativity and innovation, two factors that act as economic driving forces in the so-called “knowledge society”, thereby promoting the sustainable development of the destination from a socioeconomic perspective.

The methodology used herein develops 10 indicators that are calculated and mapped out for two case studies which examine the same geographical context and comparable populations in order to demonstrate the creative capacity of a location whose economy is heavily reliant on tourism. The results show that tourist destinations have greater potential for generating creative capital than non-tourist destinations. Therefore, the consolidation of international mass tourism destinations as creative and innovative spaces which are capable of generating creative capital without losing their competitiveness as tourist destinations merits a reconception of their current role in global–local networks.     

A model of tourism advertising effects

This study develops the AIEDA tourism advertising effects model and examines this model by tourism destination types and advertising formats in a field experiment. The AIEDA model extends the traditional AIDA model in the advertising field and additionally considers the unique features of tourism products. It includes five hierarchical stages: Attention→ Interest→Evaluation (Perceived Usefulness→ Perceived Credibility) → Desire →Action. Findings of experimental research indicate that destination type and advertising format have main effects and interaction effects on tourism advertising effects. In addition, this study discovered that, for natural and cultural destinations, video ads yielded similar or more positive advertising effects than virtual reality ads, whereas print was the least effective advertising format.