The effects of tourism development on rural livelihoods in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims to achieve biodiversity conservation and rural development in rich biodiversity areas like the Okavango Delta. CBNRM assumes that if rural communities derive benefits from natural resources, they will be obliged to use such resources sustainably. Using the sustainable livelihoods framework, this study analyzes the effects of tourism development through CBNRM on rural livelihoods at Khwai, Sankoyo and Mababe in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, using primary and secondary data sources. Results of long-term surveys and in-depth interviews indicate that the three communities have forgone traditional livelihood activities such as hunting and gathering, livestock and crop farming to participate in tourism through CBNRM. Livelihoods in these villages have been improved as a result. Basic needs such as shelter, employment and income and social services like water supply systems, transportation, scholarships and payment of funeral expenses are now provided to community members and funded with income from CBNRM. Social capital has been built up in order to agree, manage and develop the CBNRM process. These results show that tourism development in these villages is achieving its goal of improved livelihoods, contradicting claims that community development projects are failing to achieve rural development.     

旅游发展影响下农业文化遗产社区韧性感知研究——以河北宣化传统葡萄园为例

农业文化遗产作为重要的旅游资源之一,其动态保护关系到遗产地社区的生计选择、农民的生活改善和乡村的可持续发展。面对旅游活动所带来的一系列人为干扰,遗产地社区如何应对关系到农业文化遗产的可持续利用以及乡村振兴的实现。本文以河北宣化传统葡萄园为例,运用基于地方居民感知的指标测量法,针对社区居民进行旅游发展影响下农业文化遗产地社区韧性感知研究。研究结果显示：（1）旅游发展对于农业文化遗产地社区存在着较为积极的影响;（2）农业文化遗产地社区韧性各个子系统受旅游发展影响程度存在着一定的差别,由高到低分别为社会、生态、文化、经济、制度;（3）各旅游因子发挥了不同的作用,其作用程度由高到低分别为旅游设施因子、旅游形象因子、旅游产品因子和旅游规模因子。本文探究了农业文化遗产社区韧性在旅游发展中受到何种影响,分析其形成原因,以期实现农业文化遗产保护与可持续旅游的协调发展。     

An ecologically and socially inclusive model of agritourism to support smallholder livelihoods in the South Pacific

The neglect and marginalisation of smallholders in economic and development policy contributes to increasing vulnerability of rural communities. Underinvestment in agriculture, climate change impacts and growing competition for land and water places further pressure on smallholders. In this context, this paper examines the current focus in the South Pacific on strengthening the linkages between tourism and agriculture through agritourism. The paper seeks to merge multiple discourses, by firstly reviewing the development model that is driving tourism and linkages to agriculture in the South Pacific. Secondly, agritourism as it is conceptualised in the tourism literature and thirdly sustainable tourism discourse, to identify economic activities within agritourism that contribute to enhancing smallholders’ livelihoods in the South Pacific. An ecologically and socially inclusive model of agritourism is put forward based on principles of sustainable tourism and agroecology – referred to as agroecological tourism. Agroecological tourism strengthens the linkages between tourism and agriculture while fostering sustainability principles.     

基于扩展计划行为理论的乡村旅游经营者从众行为研究——西安市上王村实证

乡村旅游是实现巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成果同乡村振兴有效衔接的重要路径选择。乡村旅游经营者的从众行为能够促进旅游地的规范化与规模化发展,但一味地盲从也必然会给旅游地造成不可挽回的损失,理性对待乡村旅游经营者的从众行为对旅游地的可持续发展意义深远。本文基于扩展的计划行为理论基本框架,引入精英影响感知和模糊情境感知两个变量,对乡村旅游经营者从众行为意向的影响因素进行实证研究,并构建乡村旅游经营者从众行为形成机制的理论模型。研究发现,行为态度、指令性规范、知觉行为控制、精英影响感知和模糊情境感知与从众行为意向呈显著正相关关系。另外,乡村旅游经营者的受教育水平对从众行为意向存在显著影响,且呈现受教育水平越高从众行为意向越低的趋势。为了进一步发展乡村旅游,助推乡村振兴,建议提升乡村旅游经营者的经营能力;发挥乡村旅游精英的信息传递与示范带动作用;落实政府的引导与监管职能;防范政府决策层的盲从行为。     

Heritage Tourism in Rural Areas: Challenges for Improving Socio-economic Impacts

Many developing countries seek to utilize cultural heritage sites as resources for socio-economic development through heritage tourism. When rural area is the context of heritage tourism, effort is needed to establish linkages between tourism and the local economy by addressing the following issues: lack of skilled human resources, capital, access to credits, and other assistance; leakages; and dominance of urban players. This paper examines the impacts of heritage tourism on rural livelihoods using Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia, as the case study. Further, it proposes rural industry promotion as one of the ways to establishing better linkages to tourism.     

Self-efficacy and sustainable rural tourism development: local communities’ perspectives from Kuching,Sarawak

The future of the tourism industry is dependent on local communities’ ability to develop and sustain tourism developments, especially in sensitive rural areas. But there is limited research on this topic to guide tourism authorities and governments. In particular, few studies have studied sustainable rural tourism development from the perspective of the local communities. Therefore, this study examines local communities’ views on their capability to achieve sustainable rural tourism development in selected rural areas in Kuching, Sarawak. Questionnaires were distributed to the local communities residing at three rural tourism destinations in Kuching, Sarawak. Interestingly, the results indicated that local communities’ self-efficacy has a positive relationship with social, cultural, economic, and environmental sustainability. Hence, this study offers theoretical and practical contributions to sustainable rural tourism development literature and the tourism industry.     

参与式乡村旅游开发模式探讨

参与式乡村旅游是农民参与旅游开发的重要形式．它能从根本上增加农民的收入，增加农村就业机会，有利于农村产业结构的调整；同时通过乡村旅游的开发建设，能够加速乡村非农化进程，增强农民环保意识，促进乡村城镇化的发展，最终实现乡村经济社会可持续发展的目标。在乡村旅游开发中有多种模式可以选择，但注重社区和居民参与的开发模式是最佳选择。只有通过对社区和居民的教育、培训和管理，增强居民的旅游服务意识，提高服务水平，树立市场营销理念，才能保证参与式乡村旅游沿着可持续的道路发展。     

Terrorism and Tourism:The Vulnerability of Beach Vendors' Livelihoods in Bali

Tourism has been encouraged in many of the world's poorer countries as a means of stimulating development. However, tourism is vulnerable to external shocks, which can damage a host country's economy, especially where reliance on tourism is high. This paper focuses on Bali, Indonesia where tranquillity was shattered by terrorist bombs in October 2002, and again in October 2005. It examines the impact of the 2002 bombings on the island's beach vendors, members of the informal sector who work at the margins of tourism. The UK's Department for International Development's (DFID) model of sustainable development is used as a guide to assess notional changes in vendor livelihoods and reveals the sharp reduction in their access to financial capital once tourism had collapsed. Fieldwork showed that livelihoods were sustained with difficulty after the terrorist attacks and that social capital played a major role in survival. Although visitor numbers to Bali are recovering, the research reveals significant changes in vendors' livelihood patterns. Social capital remains strong though it has changed in certain respects as a consequence of terrorist activity, one of the most negative changes being an increase in local religious tensions. The authors question the wisdom of encouraging tourism as a major vehicle for development without simultaneously promoting alternative income-generating opportunities to offer a safety net against external shocks to a vulnerable tourism industry.     

Protected areas,tourism and community livelihoods linkages: a comprehensive analysis approach

This study explores the linkages among protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods in a rural setting. The Chobe National Park and Chobe Enclave Community Trust, Botswana, provide the context for this study. Data were collected through a community asset mapping exercise, semi-structured interviews, and published and unpublished data sources. Data were analyzed and interpreted using the community capital framework (CCF) that provided a comprehensive approach. The study identified that protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages have many inter-dependent community capitals relationships. The enhancement of community capitals was facilitated by a shift from government-controlled to multi-level governance arrangements that recognize community wildlife-based tourism potential co-exist with protected areas, have influence on community livelihoods and nurture positive linkages. Results also indicate that linkages are dependent on community capitals transformation or lack thereof; the linkages have an influential effect on the whole ecosystem on which protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods operate. The study provides a new methodological approach in understanding the changing relationships among tourism, conservation and community development by expanding community capitals framework. This study's findings also inform planners, managers, and policy makers to critically evaluate the processes of change and devise interventions accordingly.     

Addressing zero-hunger through tourism? Food security outcomes from two tourism destinations in rural Ethiopia

Underpinned by sustainable livelihood thinking, this study investigated community stakeholders' perspectives on the impacts of tourism on food security in two rural tourism destinations: Debarq and Meket in Ethiopia. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with a range of stakeholders to solicit their perspectives, revealing the complexity of the tourism and food security relationship. Although tourism had brought about some small changes to food availability, access and utilisation, there were limitations around its contribution to food stability. This was primarily due to the nature of tourism employment and lack of linkages between tourism and local agriculture. Tourism was not strong enough nor properly integrated with existing livelihoods to support the local communities' food security, generally only offering a minor contribution. This research highlights the challenges for tourism to contribute to local communities' food security, offering policy-relevant guidance for addressing the food security challenges of tourism destinations.     

Causal analysis of conflict in tourism in rural China: The peasant perspective

This study explores the reasons for conflict within the tourism sector in rural China. A case-oriented qualitative research method was employed, in which unstructured interviews were used as the primary data collection approach. From the perspective of rural peasant communities this study found three causes for conflict: infringement of peasants' basic rights and interests, economic motivation, and unfair treatment. A deprivation model was then generated as the explanatory tool in which local villagers' experiences of relative deprivation and contractual deprivation were explored. The combination of these two types of deprivation serves to trigger discontent and contributes to conflict. The findings of this study provide valuable insights leading to a better understanding of this complex conflict phenomenon, and they can also help policy makers to better engage communities in relation to conflict reduction and promote sustainable tourism planning and development.     

Heritage tourism and livelihood sustainability of a resettled rural community: Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site,China

Tourism and related development can lead to the displacement and resettlement of communities, disrupting local livelihood systems, socio-political processes and organizations. However, limited attention has been paid to community resettlement in the tourism context. Taking Yinhuwan village at Mount Sanqingshan World Heritage Site in China as an example, this study examines the results of tourism and resettlement on the livelihoods of this rural community and the extent to which tourism-related livelihood strategies contribute to community livelihood sustainability. A sustainable livelihood framework is adopted to guide the analysis. Face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted with management officials, community leaders and village residents through three field investigations in 2013. It was found that traditional livelihood methods have been largely replaced by tourism, which has become the primary livelihood strategy for the resettled community. Despite current economic benefits, high dependency on tourism-related opportunities as the single livelihood option may diminish the sustainability of local livelihoods. The current resettlement plan highlights short-term economic impacts on the affected community, overlooking their socio-cultural concerns and long-term livelihood sustainability. Possible measures are discussed to diversify livelihood options and mitigate potential challenges for the affected community so as to ensure their long-term benefits and increase future options.     

Objective Indicators of the Impact of Rural Tourism Development in the State of Florida

Over the past decade, many rural communities have been encouraged to incorporate tourism in their economic development strategies. Tourism is increasingly seen as a potential basic industry providing employment opportunities, income and economic diversity. However, concerns over the potential impacts have created a demand for comprehensive planning and research on the effects of tourism development on residents' quality of life. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate an objective means of determining the impact tourism development has on rural residents' quality of life. Using census data from rural counties in a US state, the findings suggest that tourism development is a viable means of improving the quality of life in rural communities. However, as in the case of any economic development alternatives, there are a number of underlying consequences that should be anticipated and planned for in pursuing a tourism development strategy that is appropriate and sustainable.     

Assessing the sustainability of tourism-related livelihoods in an urban World Heritage Site

The relationship between UNESCO World Heritage Sites and tourism has been described as a double-edged sword, with the benefits of tourism countered by its adverse impacts. To the extent that tourism-related livelihoods are dependent on World Heritage status, the loss of that status may have significant adverse effects, especially for poor people. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework has been used to analyse the development, or otherwise, of rural communities in poor regions of the world. This paper uses this approach to examine the urban poor of a World Heritage Site in Thailand, The Historic City of Ayutthaya. As a consequence of tourism and urban industrial development, not only has there been conflict between the urban poor and the Thai government within the designated heritage area, there is also conflict with the neighbouring industrial zones. This has resulted in fears that World Heritage status may be lost. Viewed within DFID’s Sustainable Livelihood Framework, lack of capital and little community participation are factors which contribute significantly to an unsustainable livelihood. However, this research concludes that using self-reliance as a measurement of people’s livelihood to determine ‘sustainability’ is inappropriate in an urban-tourism context because people living in urban areas rely heavily on external sources.     

Targeting sustainable outcomes with adventure tourism: A political ecology approach

Sustainability is a dominant paradigm in tourism research yet a lack of research on alternative tourism sectors to deliver sustainable outcomes hinders sustainable tourism research, planning, implementation, policy and management. This research uses a political ecology lens, to dissect how destinations can harness adventure tourism to achieve relevant sustainability objectives. Adventure tourism is not in itself sustainable but by targeting adventure travel that attracts passionate, high-paying tourists to participate in activities specifically suited to local landscapes, communities have the potential to create bespoke tourism products that fit the socio-ecological system and produce clear conservation and sustainable development outcomes.     

基于《里山倡议》的乡村旅游发展途径初探——以台湾桃园地区对乡村旅游转型的需求为例

乡村旅游作为乡村地区发展的途径之一,必须面对当代乡村景观中传统农业主体性破坏对游憩资源运用的影响。在此过程中,最基本的问题在于乡村地区如何在发展与保护之间取得平衡?乡村旅游以环境资源为基础,建立适宜的乡村环境管理与旅游模式才是乡村旅游发展的根本。该研究主要结合《里山倡议(Satoyama Initiative)》的环境管理概念,探讨其融入乡村旅游发展的可能性,并以我国台湾桃园地区乡村景观为案例,通过对桃园地区乡村景观变迁的研究访谈、空间分析及乡村旅游发展课题的探讨,初步提出三种基于里山倡议概念的乡村旅游发展的可行途径,为未来乡村旅游规划活动提供一定的参考。     

More than just a job: exploring the meanings of tourism work among Indigenous Sámi tourist entrepreneurs

In northern Sweden, the positive effects of tourism involvement by Sámi Indigenous people are mostly shown in terms of employment, yet at times have been shown to go beyond economic ones and include other equally important benefits. Only when all components are seen at the same time can we get a true understanding of tourism as a livelihood strategy. This paper uses a sustainable rural livelihoods approach to investigate the different roles and meanings of tourism among Sámi tourist entrepreneurs in northern Sweden. It does so using data from 13 semi-structured interviews with Sámi Indigenous tourist entrepreneurs. The results indicate that there are many goals and objectives tourism jobs serve among Sámi Indigenous people in the Swedish north. For example, the tourism business is at times seen as a more sustainable way of using reindeer. Tourism was also a way for Sámi to express themselves and keep certain traditions alive. Another leading conclusion relates to tourist entrepreneurs as cultural ambassadors for Sámi issues. By presenting factual information about Sámi people, challenging stereotypes and by making others aware of the many hardships reindeer herders face, Sámi tourist entrepreneurs attribute to their work meanings that are social, cultural and even political.     

Land expropriation in tourism development: Residents' attitudinal change and its influencing mechanism

The development of tourism projects is often predicated on land expropriation. It is therefore important to understand residents' attitudes towards land expropriation and how changes in those attitudes can benefit both the land expropriation process and tourism development. Taking Wudaoliang in Sandaogou village in Hebei province as a case study, this study focuses on residents' attitudinal change by taking a longitudinal approach involving non-participant observation and 180 interviews. Critical event analysis was conducted, and a framework for modelling attitudinal change was adopted. The results show that the attitudes of rural residents towards tourism development were not static but underwent a dynamic process of change across three phases. These results suggest that residents should deepen their involvement in the land expropriation process and that information transparency can reduce social conflict, which will facilitate the sustainable development of rural tourism. The theoretical and practical contributions of this study are also discussed.     

Tourism as a Mechanism for Farm Survival

This case study explores the linkages between tourism, community and development forces in the peri-urban zones of Sydney, Australia. The Hawkesbury Harvest Farm Gate Trail (HHFGT) emerged as a response to market, development, settlement and consumer pressures threatening the survival of farming in the region, together with connections to community health initiatives in food access, safety, security and quality that were spawned by the Healthy Cities programme and Agenda 21. The interaction created between farmers and tourists involved new challenges for farmers in production, marketing and service provision. Although challenging, community-based initiatives like the Farm Gate Trail are shown to hold great potential for sustainable development and sustainable tourism despite the attendant risks associated with small-scale, intensive agriculture, tourism management issues and the land use conflicts that are created when town and country meet in the urban fringe areas of major metropolises.     

Human resources development for tourism in rural communities: A case study of Kerala

Considering the relative backwardness of rural areas, human resources development (HRD) seems to have a very important role in rural tourism development. However, tourism HRD in rural communities is affected by a number of drawbacks. In the absence of any significant private sector presence, especially during initial stages, the public sector need to take the initiative in equipping and empowering the local community to meaningfully participate in tourism. This paper suggests a multi‐pronged approach to educate and empower the members of the host community, the tourism industry personnel, and visitors to facilitate rural tourism development, which is sustainability‐oriented and can help localize the benefits. The experience of Kerala provides an example of how the public sector initiated HRD activities could contribute to the development of rural tourism, especially in engendering local entrepreneurial endeavors and giving tourism a higher profile. The Kerala experience represents some of the issues in HRD for rural tourism and suggests potential strategies for other rural communities involved in tourism development.