Banks’ lending behavior and monetary policy: evidence from Sweden

The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the aggregate data about bank loans which may hide significant information about the monetary transmission mechanism. This study, by disaggregating bank loans data and using the relevant interest rates in Sweden, investigates the behaviour of banks after a monetary policy tightening. By using an unrestricted VAR model and impulse response analysis, our results show that a shock on the policy rate affects the main components of the banks’ loan portfolios differently. Initially, banks do not reduce lending to firms and households and they present a sluggish reaction concerning the relevant interest rates. On the contrary, they reduce lending to mortgage credit institutions significantly since real estate lending can be considered as a risky long-term investment. Moreover mortgage credit institutions reduce lending for housing purposes to non-bank public. This reduction is mainly driven by flexible rate loans and loans secured on tenant owned apartments. Consequently, theses actions have a significant effect on real economic activity, by amplifying the initial shock from the tightening monetary policy. The latter result provides evidence of the bank lending channel in Sweden working via mortgage lending and could be very important for policy makers.     

Credit rationing and non-price loan terms: A re-examination

This paper develops the implications of heterogeneous bank loans for borrower and lender behaviour in a competitive bank loan market by considering the own funds-loan ratio as the ‘non-price’ loan term. It is shown that in equilibrium each bank will ration its loan to borrowers by providing them with the smaller loan and requiring the higher own funds-loan ration than they would desire at the equilibrium loan rate. Moreover, restrictive monetary policy that raises the opportunity cost of granting loans decreases the loan size and increases the own funds-loan ratio, but its effect on the loan rate and credit rationing remains ambiguous. Thus credit rationing may decrease as a result of restrictive monetary policy.     

我国货币政策的信贷传导效果分析——基于商业银行与中小企业的博弈视角

信贷渠道是我国货币政策传导的主要途径,其传导效果依赖于企业对银行贷款的依赖性。基于我国中小企业对银行贷款的依赖性较低这一现实状况,本文运用不完全信息动态博弈模型,分析了商业银行与中小企业之间的信贷博弈,结果表明,在紧缩的政策下,并不是银行＂惜贷＂,而是企业＂惜借＂而转向民间渠道,信贷渠道对于投资的调控力度大大减弱;相反,在扩张政策下,中小企业都＂抢贷＂,信贷渠道对于投资的扩张效应就大大增强。这样就造成了信贷渠道传导效果的扭曲,导致货币政策易放难收。本文继而对2008年至2011年我国货币政策与银行新增贷款规模进行观测,结果与理论相符。最后,本文对这一现状提出相关的政策建议。     

中国货币政策信贷传导渠道有效性的实证分析——兼论对工业企业现金流的影响

本文运用协整检验、向量自回归模型以及脉冲响应函数等计量方法,对中国2001—2011年货币政策信贷传导渠道的有效性进行了实证分析,同时给出货币渠道的结果作为对比。实证结果表明,货币渠道和信贷渠道对货币政策的传导共同发挥作用,但两者均存在一定程度的传导障碍,并且近年来货币渠道相对信贷渠道而言似乎更具影响力。另外,本文还进一步探讨了货币政策冲击对工业企业现金流的影响,并给出了工业企业现金流主要组成部分（销售收入、利润总额以及利息支出）对货币冲击的脉冲响应函数图。     

The impact of monetary policy on the financing behaviour of firms in the Euro area and the UK

Abstract

According to the ‘broad credit view’ bank-dependent firms are more strongly affected by monetary contractions than firms with access to non-bank forms of external finance. Within the credit view the bank lending channel focuses on the special role of bank loans, and predicts that monetary contractions reduce loan supply to firms facing information problems. However, the ‘relationship lending channel’ argues that, especially in bank-based economies, bank-dependent firms have close ties with banks, which may reduce the sensitivity of their use of bank debt to monetary shocks. The sensitivity of corporate debt structures to changes in the monetary policy stance is analysed using a sample of 22,000 firms in the Euro area and the UK. Evidence is found for the credit view, the relationship lending channel, but not for the bank lending channel.     

后危机时代商业银行不良资产形成因素的实证研究——基于江西省数据的经验分析

2009年,我国信贷高增长引致未来银行不良资产大量积聚的潜在风险引起了各方关注。在后金融危机背景下,研究商业银行不良贷款的现状,发掘不良贷款存在的根源,对信贷风险管理具有重要的现实意义。本文在回顾以前研究成果的基础上,试图以更加全面的视角,从宏观经济金融环境、宏观调控政策以及银行业运行情况等三个方面深入分析商业银行不良资产的影响因素。文章运用协整分析、格兰杰因素检验和脉冲响应模型对资产价格、固定资产投资、通胀率、存款准备金率、基准利率、银行利润等指标与不良贷款率（或不良贷款余额）的因果关系、影响程度进行了实证分析。结果表明,宏观经济金融形势的变化和货币政策调整都是影响不良贷款变化的重要原因,而不良贷款率的变化对商业银行利润影响明显。     

Bank risk and monetary policy

We find evidence of a bank lending channel operating in the euro area via bank risk. Financial innovation and the wider use of new ways of transferring credit risk have tended to diminish the informational content of standard bank balance sheet indicators. We show that bank risk conditions, as perceived by financial market investors, need to be considered, together with the other indicators (i.e., size, liquidity and capitalization), traditionally used in the bank lending channel literature to assess banks’ ability and willingness to supply new loans. Using a large sample of European banks, we find that banks characterized by lower expected default frequency are able to offer a larger amount of credit and to better insulate their loan supply from monetary policy changes.     

Financial Dampening

We propose a novel mechanism, “financial dampening,” whereby loan retrenchment by banks attenuates the effectiveness of monetary policy. The theory unifies an endogenous supply of illiquid local loans and risk sharing among subsidiaries of bank holding companies (BHCs). We derive an instrumental variable (IV) strategy that separates supply-driven loan retrenchment from local loan demand by exploiting linkages through BHC internal capital markets across spatially separate BHC member banks. We estimate that retrenching banks increase loan supply substantially less in response to exogenous monetary policy rate reductions. This relative decline has persistent effects on local employment and thus provides a rationale for slow recoveries from financial distress.     

The Trade Credit Channel of Monetary Policy Transmission: Evidence from Nonfinancial Manufacturing Firms in Turkey

This study investigates the trade credit channel of monetary policy transmission in Turkey by using a large panel of corporate firms and includes detailed information on balance sheets and income statements of firms that regularly reported to the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey during the period 1996-2008. The study suggests that the composition of external finance differs considerably across firm types based on size and export performance under tight and loose financial conditions. Small and medium-size manufacturing firms and firms with a low export share are less likely to have access to bank finance, especially in tight periods. In addition, financially constrained firms with limited access to bank finance (small, low-export-share firms) tend to substitute trade credits for bank loans more aggressively in tight periods as monetary policy tightens. The large volume of trade credit on firms' balance sheets and its positive response to contractionary monetary shocks imply that the trade credit channel might subdue the traditional credit channel of monetary transmission.     

Foreign bank penetration and the lending channel in emerging economies: Evidence from bank-level panel data

This paper examines the main implications of recently increasing foreign bank penetration on bank lending as a channel of monetary policy transmission in emerging economies. Using a dynamic panel model of loan growth, we investigate the loan granting behavior of 1273 banks in the emerging economies of Asia, Latin America, and Central and Eastern Europe during the period from 1996 to 2003. Applying the pooled OLS, system GMM, and panel VAR estimators, we find consistent evidence that foreign banks are less responsive to monetary shocks in host countries, as they adjust their outstanding loan portfolios and interest rates to a lesser extent than domestic private banks, independent of their liquidity, capitalization, size, efficiency, and credit risk, and although there exists a bank lending channel in the emerging economies, it is declining in strength due to the increased level of foreign bank penetration. We also explore possible driving factors for the different responses of foreign and domestic banks to monetary policy shocks by investigating foreign banks’ different behavior during banking crises and tranquil periods, the effects of mode of entry to host countries, the home-country effects, and the response of foreign banks from OECD countries vs. all foreign countries including non-OECD countries. We suggest the access of foreign banks to funding from parent banks through internal capital markets as the most convincing explanation.     

货币政策能够兼顾稳增长与防风险吗？——基于动态随机一般均衡模型的分析

为构建金融有效支持实体经济的体制机制,需平衡好稳增长、调结构和防风险三者间的关系。在此背景下,本文在两部门新凯恩斯主义动态随机一般均衡模型中引入异质性抵押约束,探讨货币政策如何兼顾稳增长和防风险,进而促进金融更好地服务实体经济。本文模拟结果显示:(1)降低利率和强化国企抵押约束可促进稳增长与稳杠杆。推动国企贷款利率趋于市场水平并降低非国企贷款成本,积极发挥结构性货币政策工具的作用,将增进其政策效果;(2)2008-2016年宏观杠杆率上升主要与国企抵押约束过松有关,2017年后利率对宏观杠杆率的调控增强;(3)宏观审慎政策框架下,货币政策盯住宏观杠杆率,并根据政策目标和经济背景适时调整利率与杠杆率的内生关系,能够优化货币政策效果。对于降低利率和强化国企抵押约束的政策组合,根据宏观杠杆率的变化同向调整利率水平有利于经济稳步增长和宏观杠杆率趋稳。     

货币政策工具对银行信贷调控效果的量级差异——基于存款准备金率、利率的实证研究

我国货币政策主要通过信贷渠道进行传导,商业银行的信贷行为是货币政策传导的微观基础。本文通过分析山东省的稳健货币政策调控效应,认为商业银行通过信贷行为调整传导了调控政策,同时也引致了对冲调控策略行为。为分析不同货币政策工具调控约束力的量级差异,本文以银行信贷期限配置行为和房贷行为为例,将利率和存款准备金政策工具纳入向量自回归模型,利用脉冲响应分析不同货币政策调控工具对银行信贷行为的影响。     

Banks’ external financing costs and the bank lending channel: Results from a SVAR analysis

We analyze the dynamic response of banks’ financing costs to structural, macroeconomic shocks, which we identify by imposing combinations of zero and sign restrictions on impulse responses. For the estimation we combine US bank balance sheet data from the Call reports with macroeconomic aggregates over the period from 1984Q1 to 2007Q3. We find that banks’ financing costs mainly respond to monetary policy and aggregate demand shocks. Furthermore, funding costs of undercapitalized and illiquid banks increase more strongly after a contractionary monetary policy shock as compared to better capitalized and more liquid banks. These results provide support for the view that banks’ financing costs represent an important element of the bank lending channel.     

Identification of a loan supply function: A cross-country test for the existence of a bank lending channel

Using the theoretical predictions of the Bernanke–Blinder [Bernanke, B.S., Blinder, A.S., 1988. Is it money or credit or both or neither? Credit, money, and aggregate demand. American Economic Review 78, 435–459] model, we seek to examine the existence of a bank lending channel through the empirical identification of a loan supply function and to assess the impact of differential bank characteristics on banks’ ability to supply loans. To this end, we estimate a loan supply model and test for the restrictions implied by perfect substitutability between loans and bonds in bank portfolios. Estimations are carried out on bank panel data for six OECD countries, the results showing that a bank lending channel is at work in only two of them. Moreover, we find that the relevance of bank characteristics is hardly a decisive factor in the identification of a loan supply function.     

定向降准、贷款可得性与小微企业商业信用——基于断点回归的经验证据

小微企业在我国经济发展中起到了重要作用,但由于长期面临融资约束问题,使其不得不诉诸非正式制度(如商业信用)来缓解融资困难。党的十九届五中全会明确提出,支持小微企业成长为创新重要发源地,完善促进小微企业发展的政策体系。其中,实施“精准滴灌”式的货币政策,对小微企业成长尤为重要,是金融服务实体经济的必然要求。我国央行的定向降准政策激励银行向小微企业提供贷款,有利于疏通小微企业通过正式制度(如银行贷款)进行融资的渠道。本文基于定向降准这一自然实验,采用断点回归设计,评估贷款可得性对小微企业商业信用的影响。研究发现:第一,正式制度对于非正式制度存在明显的替代效应,即小微企业贷款可得性上升以后,对商业信用的需求显著下降。第二,不同的模型设定与稳健性检验,均得到一致的结论。第三,贷款可得性提高对小微企业商业信用的影响因企业异质性而有所差异。本文研究为银行贷款与商业信用之间的替代关系提供了来自中国小微企业的证据,有助于理解定向降准政策对小微企业融资决策的影响,为扶持小微企业发展的政策制定提供参考。     

贷款结构视角下我国货币政策信贷传导机制的有效性

我国金融体系是银行主导型,银行贷款仍然是企业最主要的资金来源,信贷市场是我国货币政策传导的主要渠道.本文应用1997年至2008年第二季度的季度数据,基于SVAR方法,比较分析了货币政策工具利率调整和实际经济变化对不同种类银行贷款的冲击.研究结果显示:利率上调会降低消费性贷款的增速,而工商业贷款和中长期贷款的变化受利率上调的影响不大,本文对工商业贷款和中长期贷款在紧缩性货币政策下上涨的原因进行了解释.     

What does peer-to-peer lending evidence say about the Risk-Taking Channel of monetary policy?

This paper uses loan application-level data from a peer-to-peer lending platform to study the risk-taking channel of monetary policy. By employing a direct ex-ante measure of risk-taking and estimating the simultaneous equations of loan approval and loan amount, we provide evidence of monetary policy's impact on a nonbank financial institution's risk-taking. We find that the search-for-yield is the main driving force of the risk-taking effect, while we do not observe consistent findings of risk-shifting from the liquidity change. Monetary policy easing is associated with a higher probability of granting loans to risky borrowers and greater riskiness of credit allocation. However, these changes do not necessarily relate to a larger loan amount on average.     

银行异质性对货币政策信贷传导机制的影响研究

银行借贷渠道作为货币政策信贷传导机制中的一种,有力的传导了中国货币政策的宏观调控作用。但是由于资本规模、贷款结构、以及治理结构的不同,各个银行的货币政策信贷传导机制传导效率也存在差异。本文正是基于银行异质性特征,利用中国2004-2013年的相关数据,实证分析了银行异质性特征与中国货币政策传导效率间的关系。实证结果表明,银行的异质性特征造成了货币政策传导效率的差异化,货币政策对不同特质的银行贷款供给能力的影响存在差异性,并且不同特质银行传导货币政策的效率有差别。最后,本文针对上述实证结果提出相关建议。     

中国货币政策与就业关系实证分析

自改革开放以来，失业一直是中国政府关注的重要问题。本文主要通过分析我国法定存款准备金率的变动如何影响银行的信用规模，进而对国内就业产生影响，得出货币政策的实施可以影响国内贷款规模，国内贷款的变动可以滞后两期对就业产生冲击的结论。笔者认为，只要有效运用货币政策就可以积极促进就业。     

Monetary policy and bank risk-taking: Evidence from the corporate loan market

Our study of the corporate loan pricing policies of U.S. banks over the past two decades shows that loan spreads for riskier firms become relatively lower during periods of monetary policy easing compared to tightening. This effect is driven by banks with greater risk appetite, measured from individual banks’ answers to the Senior Loan Officers Opinion Survey. Our results hold with different fixed effects that account for time-varying observed and unobserved heterogeneity of credit demand and bank lending conditions that are not directly related to monetary policy. Together with our survey-based measure of bank risk appetite, we provide compelling evidence of the presence of a bank risk-taking channel of monetary policy in the U.S.