A worldwide review of support mechanisms for car clubs

Car clubs have operated on a large scale only since 1987, when the first scheme began in Switzerland, although prior to that there were several smaller-scale projects. Schemes then spread to Germany, Austria and the Netherlands. More recently, car clubs have been set up in the UK, Denmark, Italy, and Sweden, and in Canada and the USA. These clubs have developed (and are still developing) in a number of ways. Some schemes are community-level schemes with only one or two vehicles, while others are national organisations with many thousands of members. And some schemes are run by volunteers and are non-profit making, while others are commercial ventures run by international companies.Despite such diverse beginnings, it is clear that the vast majority of schemes face similar problems in becoming established. One major barrier has been the lack of involvement or support from local and national Government. Given the potential benefits of car clubs to deliver environmental and social improvements to communities, this is somewhat surprising.As experience of car clubs spreads, this situation has begun to change and there are signs that Government attitudes across the world are becoming more enthusiastic to the idea of encouraging car clubs. This paper draws on the results of a state-of-the-art review, based on several face-to-face and telephone interviews, email communications, internet sites and existing literature to identify cases where such a change in attitude has occurred, how various levels of Government have translated this into action, and what lessons could be learnt from each example.     

The transformation of urban transport in the Czech Republic, 1988–1998

Similar to virtually all formerly socialist countries in Central and Eastern Europe, the Czech Republic has been experiencing a transport revolution since the shift from socialism to capitalism a decade ago. From 1988 to 1998, per-capita car ownership rose by 63% in the country as a whole, and by 93% in the capital city of Prague. Vehicle km of motor vehicle use have more than doubled. Conversely, public transport usage has fallen considerably, by 26% in the country as a whole, and by 19% in Prague. This modal shift from public transport to the private car has resulted from increased incomes, access to Western markets, declining real prices of cars and petrol, removal of restrictions on manufacturing and importing cars, and the car's attraction as a symbol of freedom, affluence, and status. The sharp reduction of subsidies for public transport has forced increases in fares and service cutbacks, which have also encouraged the shift toward the private car. Although the private car is very popular, the sudden surge in car ownership and use has caused significant social and environmental problems: roadway congestion, parking shortages, increased traffic accidents, air pollution, and noise. Given their severe financial limitations, Czech cities are struggling to preserve their public transport systems while accommodating the immensely popular private car.     

Office location decisions, modal split and the environment: the ineffectiveness of Norwegian land use policy

An examination of five Norwegian companies’ decisions to locate/relocate reveals that the new locations are in accordance with policy objectives of reduced car commuting and related environmental improvements. Still, most companies ended up with new locations that increase car commuting significantly, compared both to the situation before relocation and to the alternative location that was eliminated only at the last stage in the selection process. This paradox may be explained by a double policy failure: First, current policy instruments are not oriented towards the parameters that companies themselves consider as key selection criteria for office location. Second, policy instruments do not adequately address factors that determine the share of car commuting for a given location.     

A fuel surcharge policy for reducing road traffic greenhouse gas emissions

This paper proposes a car pricing policy based on fuel surcharges in substitution of car ownership taxes for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by cars. The aim of the proposed policy is to change some (fixed) costs of car use that are not perceived at each trip into (variable) costs. The amount of fuel surcharges and the effects of their application on fuel consumption and on GHG emissions are estimated by a model that is able to relate gasoline and diesel consumption with fuel prices. The effects of the proposed policy on fuel consumption and on GHG emissions are estimated for Italy. The results show that car users prefer to shift towards more efficient fuel vehicles than to public transport, producing a significant, but less than expected, reduction of GHG emissions.     

Division of labour and gender differences in metropolitan car use: An empirical study in Cologne,Germany

This paper suggests the need for a broader view of `gender and transport' by presenting a study of gender differences in car use for maintenance travel. Although many more women are now entering the labour force than a few decades ago, they still have to undertake the larger share of household-related work. The main objective of this paper is to assess the impact of these changing gender roles on travel patterns and in particular on car use for maintenance travel. We used the survey and trip diary data of 949 respondents living in two urban and two suburban neighbourhoods of the Cologne metropolitan area. The empirical findings suggest that labour market and maintenance activities influence car use in different directions. While parenthood reduces the odds of car use by women, it increases men's car use. Labour force participation on the other hand, especially when part-time, intensifies car use for both genders. In short, a levelling influence of paid work and a traditionalizing influence of parenthood regarding car use for maintenance travel was found.     

Singapore''s experience with car quotas: Issues and policy processes

This paper examines the policy processes behind Singapore's car quotas. The policy, when filtered through the market mechanism, had a number of unintended consequences. The public's unhappiness with certain features and ‘loopholes’ of the system resulted in many changes to the rules. The effects of recent measures to curb speculation on quota premiums are evaluated. Problems with Singapore's Weekend Car Scheme are also discussed. The lesson for transport policy makers elsewhere is that in attempting to deal with the road congestion problem through car ownership policies, an asset market for vehicles should be taken into account.     

Households transport-home energy conservation strategies in response to energy price policies: A stated adaptation experiment based on portfolio choices and cross effects designs

This article explores consumer investment choice in long-term energy conservation technology and assesses trade-offs in energy saving behaviour between the housing and transportation domains. The long-term energy conservation choice problem is conceptualized as a portfolio choice problem. Consequently, to measure trade-offs between investments in housing and transport options, a cross effects choice design is developed in which respondents were shown one or more alternate ways to reduce their current energy consumption: (1) investing in new technology in the house, such as solar panels; (2) exchanging the current car for a more energy efficient car; (3) buying a new energy-efficient car, such as EV or solar car; (4) moving house to reduce current travel distances. To help respondents linking these options to their current energy consumption, a new Web-based survey system (SINA) to implement and administer stated adaptation experiments was developed. The system was used to collect two sets of data. First, data about out-of-home and in-home energy consumption, together with detailed time use data, was collected. Second, using a cross effects design, respondents were asked to select a portfolio of energy-saving strategies in response to different energy pricing policy scenarios. Results reported in this paper are based on 572 respondents who completed the survey and responded to seven adaptation questions based on their current energy expenditures. A random parameters logit model is estimated to predict the probability of choosing a particular portfolio of energy-saving options. Estimation results indicate that individuals from different socio-demographic groups exhibit varied preferences. The saving option characteristics, especially cost related characteristics have significant effects on individuals' preferences. Moreover, the results also showed significant effects of choice set composition on energy saving options. Further, the energy pricing policies had showed mixed effects on individual's preferences.     

How persuasive is ‘free’ public transport?: A survey among commuters in the Brussels Capital Region

In Belgium, several cities have been experimenting with ‘free’ public transport based on the concept of a third payer system. This study explores the modal shift potential of this measure for commuters by means of a large-scale survey. The results indicate that there is still a margin for a further modal shift, but in order to make public transport more attractive to car users, the price paid by the commuter should be lowered, the quality and capacity of the public services should be improved and the mobility policy of the companies should be adjusted in favour of public transport.     

The influence of gender on daily car use and on willingness to reduce car use in Sweden

This paper tests the influence of gender on daily car use and on willingness to reduce car use. Car use is modeled in terms of practical factors combined with manifestations of the specific influence of gender. Willingness to reduce car use is modeled in terms of attitudinal factors using a theory of environmentalism. The results confirm the existence of a gender component. The concluding discussion suggests that more research is needed to further our theoretical understanding and methodological expertise regarding how gender can be modeled in travel research in order to attain current policy regarding a gender equal transportation system.     

The impact of the Internet on human activity–travel patterns: analysis of gender differences using multi-group structural equation models

The widespread use of the Internet for conducting various types of activities may be leading to considerable change in people’s activity–travel patterns. Past studies, however, have left many issues unaddressed. Using an Internet-activity diary dataset and multi-group structural equation modeling, this study examines the complex interactions between different types of Internet and physical activities, with a special focus on gender differences and Internet maintenance and leisure activities. The results indicate that the impacts of Internet activities on people’s activity–travel patterns are significantly different across gender. In general, Internet use for maintenance purposes has a greater impact on women’s activity–travel in the physical world, while Internet use for leisure purposes affects men’s physical activities and travel to a greater extent. Further, breaking Internet activities down into different categories reveals some hidden patterns that would not have been detected if these different types of Internet activities were lumped together as a single category.     

Understanding the urban travel attitudes and behavior of Tbilisi residents

In recent decades the public transport network in Tbilisi, Georgia has decayed, while the number of private automobiles has increased dramatically. This study seeks to expand our understanding of the Tbilisi population’s urban transport attitudes and behavior. It elaborates on the perceived strengths, weaknesses, and potentials of the public transport system, and seeks to understand the reasons for the increased use of private automobiles. A questionnaire survey was conducted among Tbilisi car drivers (n=159) and public transport users (n=163). The results show that most of the survey respondents preferred to use a private car and avoid using public transport. Particularly important factors include time issues such as schedules and frequency, plus comfort and safety issues. Tbilisi residents value their time and want to use it efficiently. Changing residents’ travel behavior will require making the public transport options competitive with the perceived advantages of the car. The study offers recommendations for more effective urban transport policy, including incentives to encourage greater use of public transport in Tbilisi.     

Determinants of private car users' acceptance of road pricing

The study investigates determinants of private car users' acceptance of road pricing. A model specifying the strength and direction of causal paths between latent theoretical variables was estimated for data from a survey of 524 car owners living in a metropolitan area of Sweden. The estimated model showed that acceptance of road pricing is negatively affected by perceived infringement on freedom and unfairness which in turn increase with intentions to reduce car use. Income is negatively and expectations that others will reduce car use positively related to intentions to reduce car use.     

Evaluating voluntary travel behaviour change: Suggested guidelines and case studies

Since the late 1990s, voluntary travel behaviour change (VTBC) has been an increasingly popular strategy in Australia, applied to reduce both reliance on the car and greenhouse gas emissions. Early efforts to evaluate the impact of this strategy were generally implemented by the agency that also implemented the policy and used small sample, self-report surveys. The paper starts out by discussing the nature and size of travel behaviour changes that are frequently expected in current policy, noting that these are often smaller than the sampling and measurement errors in traditional methods of measuring travel behaviour. The paper then discusses some alternative methods of evaluating voluntary travel behaviour change implementations using panels to reduce sampling error, and using a combination of personal Global Positioning System devices and odometer reading surveys to measure travel patterns. From these considerations, a number of guidelines are suggested for what is required to evaluate voluntary travel behaviour change. The paper describes three recent case studies in Australia in which such methods have been used and evaluates the methodological approaches used in these studies against the suggested guidelines.     

Vienna's path to sustainable transport

Vienna, Austria reduced the car share of trips by a third between 1993 and 2014: from 40% to 27%. The key to Vienna's success has been a coordinated package of mutually reinforcing transport and land-use policies that have made car use slower, less convenient, and more costly, while improving conditions for walking, cycling, and public transport. During 32 in-person interviews in Vienna in May 2015, a wide range of politicians, transport planners, and academics almost unanimously identified the expansion of the U-Bahn (metro) and parking management as the most important policies accounting for the reduction in car mode share since 1993. Implementation of sustainable transport policies in Vienna has been a long-term, multi-staged process requiring compromises, political deals, and coalition-building among political parties and groups of stakeholders. This consensual approach to policy development has been time-consuming. Vienna has not been the first city to introduce any particular policy, but it has masterfully adopted successful policies from other cities. The continuity of social democratic governments in Vienna since 1945 has provided a crucial political basis for long-term implementation. The Greens have vigorously pushed for accelerating implementation of sustainable transport policies since becoming part of the ruling coalition government in 2010. The progressive political environment in Vienna has been essential to its increasingly sustainable transport system. Other major cities in Western Europe have also reduced the share of trips by car since 1990. Together with Vienna, they provide useful lessons for other cities throughout the world on how to reduce car dependence.     

Understanding attitudes towards public transport and private car: A qualitative study

This paper presents the results of a qualitative study of public transport users and car users in order to obtain a deeper understanding of travellers’ attitudes towards transport and to explore perceptions of public transport service quality. The key findings indicate that in order to increase public transport usage, the service should be designed in a way that accommodates the levels of service required by customers and by doing so, attract potential users. Furthermore, the choice of transport is influenced by several factors, such as individual characteristics and lifestyle, the type of journey, the perceived service performance of each transport mode and situational variables. This suggests the need for segmentation taking into account travel attitudes and behaviours. Policies which aim to influence car usage should be targeted at the market segments that are most motivated to change and willing to reduce frequency of car use.     

Destination choice and the identity of places: A disaggregated analysis for different types of visitor population environment in the Netherlands

Individual behaviour relates to the ecological structure or identity of places. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the space–time ecologies of different types of visitor population environment in the Netherlands and destination choice. Multinomial logistic regression modelling for car users was applied to determine the relative importance of various personal and household attributes on choosing for a particular purpose a particular type of visitor population environment during a particular time period of the day. The attributes with the strongest link to the space–time ecologies of destination environments proved to be age, educational level, car ownership, and household income and type.     

Mapping the potential consequences of car-use reduction in urban areas

Policy measures managing the demand for private car use are contemplated in urban areas all over the world. A first step in evaluating the effectiveness––as well as the interrelated sociospatial consequences––of travel demand management (TDM) measures is determining how their implementation changes the travel options faced by households in different segments. Geocoded travel diary data from Gothenburg, Sweden, are analysed with the aim of determining the number and type of trips by car to the city centre that would be affected by the introduction of traffic regulations varying spatially and temporally. Logistic regression analyses are performed to identify effects on different trip purposes, as well as individual and household characteristics related to changes in travel options. The possible application of the results within a policy context and to other urban areas is discussed along with the potential implications for research into adaptation strategies adopted in response to the implementation of TDM measures.     

The impact of company-car taxation policy on travel behavior

This paper explores the impact of company car taxation on travel behavior. It focuses on a nationwide case study in Israel, which experienced a massive growth in the extent of company cars and which has implemented various policy changes in the taxation of company cars. A survey of 400 employees who have a company car and 230 employees who have only a privately owned car clearly points out the significant impact exerted by company cars on travel behavior, negatively affecting sustainable transportation development. The practice of and taxation policy in regard to the company car result in considerable extra mileage and encourage car usage by the employee's entire household. Changes in the taxation of a company car as well as in employer's policy toward company car usage may bring about a significant change in drivers' decisions regarding the willingness to have a company car and their travel behavior.     

Fares and tolls in a competitive system with transit and highway: the case with two groups of commuters

This paper deals with pricing and modal split in a competitive mass transit/highway system with heterogeneous commuters. Two groups of commuters that differ in their disutility from travel time, schedule delay and transit crowding, select the transit or auto mode for traveling from a residential area to a workplace. We compare three pricing schemes: the marginal cost-based transit fare with no-toll (called ‘m’ for short), the average cost-based fare with no-toll (‘a’) and marginal cost-based fare with time-invariant toll for subsidizing transit (‘s’), and derive a socially optimal combination of transit fare and road toll which minimizes the total social cost of the competitive system meanwhile ensuring no deficit to the transit side (‘o’). The main findings from the analytical and numerical results are: (1) the ‘o’ policy generates the most total transit usage, then ‘s’, ‘m’ and ‘a’ in order; (2) the total usage of each mode is independent of the demand composition when group 1 uses both modes; (3) the group 2’s aversion to transit crowding does not affect total transit usage; (4) group 2 has relatively larger welfare gains from some changes in pricing policy, such as changing ‘m’ to ‘s’ or to ‘o’; (5) the a-policy results in the highest total social cost, then ‘m’, ‘s’ and ‘o’ in that order.