面向新世纪的美国能源研究与发展重点

美国总统科技顾问委员会向总统提交了"面向21世纪挑战的联邦能源研究与发展"报告,提出美国能源领域的研究与发展在即将步入新世纪时面临挑战.报告称美国经济的良好发展依赖于持续的、负担得起的能源供应,维护良好的环境要求能源消耗排放更少的二氧化碳和其他污染物,国家的安全需要保护石油和其他替代能源的供应并防止核扩散;基于这些经济、环境和安全的因素,美国必须保持在世界能源科技领域的领先地位.     

美国的FTA战略与石油安全

在多边贸易体系不断受阻后,美国转向了FTA战略,并以FTA作为政策工具服务于国家整体战略.由于美国的石油储备有限,而且是世界第一大石油消费国,石油安全成为美国国家安全的重大问题.美国政府通过与主要石油供应国签署FTA或者BITs和TIFAs的形式,来达到或促进保障石油供应安全的目的.此外,美国通过与主要石油运输通道国家签署FTA,用其全球最大的消费市场作吸引,从而获得能源运输的安全.本文试图从美国石油安全和FTA战略实施的关系的角度进行分析,找出其内在的联系,为我国制定FTA战略和能源安全战略提供可以借鉴的经验.     

世界石油资源新图景下的石油安全

石油是“能源中的能源”、现代工业的“血液”和现代经济的命脉，直接影响着国家的稳定与安全。石油供应安全问题成为世界各国在考虑经济安全和国防安全时最先关注的问题之一。据国际能源专家分析，在今后20年内，全球对石油的需求将急剧增加，石油供应中断的危险性也将增加。保障石油供应安全，不仅要重视国内市场，而且还要特别注重国际市场，要站在全球角度来审视本国的石油供应问题。世界各国对全球石油供应资源的争夺，构成了世界各国政治、外交政策的重要基础。     

美国石油安全战略分析及对中国的启示

美国一直把石油视作维护国家安全和推行全球霸权战略不可或缺的因素。新时期,在生态因素、石油成本因素、战略层面考虑以及安全利益需要的共同作用下,美国石油正向发展可再生石油、研发替代石油、塑造多元化石油格局方向转变。作为世界上最大的发展中国家,中国石油也存在石油供需缺口增大、石油依存度高、石油结构不合理、环境污染大等挑战。主要从美国石油储备战略、石油外交战略、石油运输通道安全战略、国际石油多边合作战略、新石油安全战略五个方面进行全方位进行分析;另外,提出了美国石油安全战略对中国的启示和借鉴。     

多元化：世界石油地缘政治的主旋律

以最大石油消费国美国为首的发达国家与以世界最大石油输出国沙特阿拉伯为首的中东产油国家的控制与反控制的“强强抗衡”，成为上世纪70年代以后30年间石油地缘政治的主旋律；进入本世纪，特别是伊拉克战争之後，由于世界石油供需不平衡的矛盾凸显，各国都将石油保障纳入国家发展安全战略．世界石油地缘政治主旋律呈现“多元化”态势。世界石油地缘政治多元化主要表现在石油输出多元化、石油需求多元化和石油资本多元化。世界石油地缘政治的多元化，引发了世界石油市场结构的大调整。这一大调整不仅体现在俄罗斯、中亚和西非等新石油储产中心的开辟，还涉及需求结构调整、供应结构调整、资本结构调整等石油领域的方方面面，是包括需求激增的拉动、供应风险的激励、美国石油霸权战略的催化、各国政府的推动和新技术的保障等多种因素共同作用的结果，其时间持续之长，波及范围之广，影响之深远，是前所未有的。石油地缘政治多元化的阻力主要来自美国，因为美国将控制石油资源作为其全球霸权战略的核心内容，将控制伊拉克作为制服中东产油国家的“石油王牌”，并且以种种借口遏制其他大国获取石油资源。但是，世界走向多极化是大势所趋．封美国石油霸权的制衡是石油生产和消费大国的共同意愿，石油地缘政治多元化将势不可挡。     

从美国能源政策演进看奥巴马能源政策宣言

美国在世界石油市场中占有重要地位,其能源政策会对世界石油市场产生巨大的影响,因此研究总统竞选中奥巴马能源政策宣言未来实现的可能性非常必要。文章首先结合国际原油价格历史走势回顾了美国能源政策演进过程,然后引入石油进口依存度、石油依存度和石油消费强度三个指标定量分析了已有能源政策的效果,得出美国能源政策制定和实施的一些规律,并据此对奥巴马能源政策宣言进行了深入分析。     

美国的里海石油战略

能源是美国国家安全的重要组成部分。对美国来说，能源问题主要是石油问题。美国现在每天消费1800万桶石油，其中大约有一半是进口的。到2010年，进口石油的比重大概会上升到70％。从传统意义上讲，美国能源安全的关键问题是供应的脆弱性，一旦出现能源供应危机，就需要付出高昂的经济和社会代价。美国国防部早在1981年就在有关文件中指出：“外国石油供应大规模遭到破坏对美国造成的损害不亚于一场严重的军事冲突，甚至一场战争。”美国前国防部长温伯格也认为：“没有有保障的石油供应，我们就无法保持经济的运转或捍卫我们的国家。”石油…     

新形势下的能源安全挑战及应对

伴随着经济的高速增长,我国对能源的需求急速上升,并跃居全球能源消费大国的地位。2009年,我国成为世界第二大石油净进口国,紧随美国之后。我国目前正处在城镇化和工业化加速发展的阶段,能源尤其是石油消耗刚性增长的趋势在短时期内不会有所改变。但是,近二十年来我国石油产量增长非常缓慢,并且大大滞后于需求的增长,这导致了我国的石油供应缺口越来越大。作为增长最快的新兴经济体和全球能源消费大国,既面临着国内能源供需严重失衡的矛盾,也面临着世界能源格局变化所带来的新挑战和压力。     

世界石油危机背景下的我国能源安全

近年来,国际油价持续上涨,世界范围内普遍存在石油危机的困扰.我国是世界第二大能源消费国和第三大石油进口国,石油危机必定会对我国的能源安全以及石油安全造成较大的影响.在此背景下,研究世界石油危机背景下我国的能源安全有一定的现实意义.以此为切入点,文章通过分析国内外石油供求及波动趋势,对我国石油安全进行研究.结果表明,现阶段我国的能源安全受到了一定威胁,但仍能维持;但如果进口保持现有趋势,我国在不久的将来保障石油安全将面临巨大挑战.     

聚焦我国的石油安全战略

石油安全是一个复杂的系统工程，树立正确的石油安全观、正确看待我国石油安全问题，是制定石油安全战略，保障我国石油供应安全的基础。中国石油安全形势在国际环境中面临机遇也面临挑战，采取积极措施，规避石油安全风险，势在必行。     

Profitability and supply price in the US domestic oil industry: implications for the political economy of oil in the twenty-first century

In May 2001, the US Government's National Energy Policy DevelopmentGroup proposed to increase investment in domestic oil resourcesand to diversify further the sourcing of US oil imports by increasingproduction in new petroleum provinces. The paper argues thatboth strands of this policy are dependent upon a third, unstated,objective—to ensure that OPEC retains sufficient marketpower to prevent the sort of collapse in world oil prices thatoccurred in 1998–99. The consequences of that collapse,when the real price of US oil fell to its lowest level in 53years, are explored. Finally, it is argued that the outcomeof the crisis was a rapprochement between OPEC and the US. Itis suggested that the consensus between the US and OPEC as tothe desired range within which the world oil price should moveis likely to survive any temporary political disturbances.     

Revisiting the oil price and stock market nexus: A nonlinear Panel ARDL approach

In this paper, we re-examine the relationship between oil price and stock prices in oil exporting and oil importing countries in the following distinct ways. First, we account for possible nonlinearities in the relationship in order to quantify the asymmetric response of stock prices of these two categories to positive and negative oil price changes. Secondly, in order to capture within group differences, we allow for heterogeneity effect in the cross-sections by formulating a nonlinear Panel ARDL model which is the panel data representation of the Shin et al. (2014) model and also analogous to the non-stationary heterogenous panel data model. Thirdly, we evaluate the relative predictability of the linear (symmetric) and nonlinear (asymmetric) Panel ARDL models using the Campbell and Thompson (2008) test. Our results depict that stock prices of both oil exporting and oil importing groups respond asymmetrically to changes in oil price although the response is stronger in the latter than the former. This finding is further corroborated by the out-of-sample forecast results suggesting that the inclusion of positive and negative oil price changes in the predictive model for stock prices will produce better forecast results only for the oil importing countries. Our results are robust to different oil price proxies, lag structure and in-sample periods. Overall, the dichotomy between oil exporting and oil importing countries has implications on oil price-stock nexus.     

Impact of oil price changes on Turkey’s exports

Substantial decline in oil prices observed since the second half of 2014 has brought forward discussions on the impact of oil prices on the external balance. This decline is expected to shift real income from oil exporter countries to oil importer countries. In this context, we study the effect of change in oil prices on Turkey’s exports taking into account the fact that Turkey’s export to oil exporting countries has approximately one-third share in total exports, while export to oil importing countries has a share of two-thirds. At the first step, we analyse the effect of oil prices on economic growth of trade partners of Turkey, where countries are grouped according to their net oil export position. We find that the effect of oil prices on different country groups’ growth is asymmetric. In the second stage, for two groups of countries, we estimate growth-export elasticity through Turkey’s export demand function. Finally, we calculate the net effect of oil prices on exports considering different income effects caused by oil price change on each country groups. Results indicate that the net effect of oil prices on the exports is limited given the current export shares.     

The effect of oil prices on stock prices: fresh evidence from asymmetric causality tests

This article investigates the causal impact of oil prices on stock prices in each G7 market as well as in the world market. An asymmetric causality test developed by Hatemi-J is used for this purpose. Since the underlying data appears to be non-normal with time-varying volatility, we use bootstrap simulations with leverage adjustments in order to produce more reliable critical values than the asymptotic ones. Based on symmetric causality tests, we find no causal effect of oil prices on the stock prices of the world market or any of the G7 countries. However, when we apply an asymmetric causality test, we find that increasing oil prices cause stock prices to rise in the world, the U.S. and Japan while decreasing oil prices cause stock prices to fall in Germany. This may imply that the world, the U.S. and Japanese stock markets consider increases in oil prices as an indicator of good news as this may mean that there is an increase in oil demand due to an expected growth in the economy while the German stock market treats decreasing oil prices as a signal of an expected contraction in the economy.     

Oil prices and economic activity: evidence for G-7 economies based on a wavelet approach

This study examines the relationship between oil prices and economic activity in the G-7 economies during the period 1960M1–2014M07 using a wavelet approach. The results show significant differences in the relationship between these two variables depending on the frequencies. Furthermore, we find that oil price shocks affect economic activity at low frequencies (long run) in all G-7 countries, while the effect at high frequencies (short run) is limited to a few countries.     

The economics of oil,biofuel and food commodities

We study the effects on the food price of introducing biofuels as a substitute for fossil fuel in the energy market. Energy is supplied by a price-leading oil cartel and a competitive fringe of farmers producing biofuel. Biofuel production shares a finite land resource with food production. A positive relationship results between energy and food prices. We establish that the equilibrium price of food will be growing as long as the oil stock is being depleted, and beyond if demand is growing. An analysis of the effects of the productivity of land use in either the food or the biofuel sectors is carried out. It is shown that, with a highly inelastic demand for food, an increase in the productivity of land in agriculture will decrease the price of food in the short-run, only to increase it in the long-run as the stock of fossil fuel is depleted.     

Long-run waves or short-run fluctuations – what establishes the correlation between oil and food prices?

The strong correlation between food prices and energy prices has gained much attention in the public debate. In this article, we focus on the so-called excess co-movement, which is the correlation between crude oil price and the prices of food commodities after controlling for economic activity. We use a frequency domain Granger causality test to analyse short-run and long-run relationships between crude oil prices and prices of food commodities. For important biofuel inputs like maize, soybeans, rapeseed and EU sugar, we find evidence for long-run Granger causality in particular for the period after 2007. This supports the hypothesis that the increasing biofuel production creates the link between the prices of crude oil and food commodities. However, we also find short-run Granger causality for various food commodities. This result is more in line with herd behaviour or speculation in commodity markets.     

The economics of oil,biofuel and food commodities

We study the effects on the food price of introducing biofuels as a substitute for fossil fuel in the energy market. Energy is supplied by a price-leading oil cartel and a competitive fringe of farmers producing biofuel. Biofuel production shares a finite land resource with food production. A positive relationship results between energy and food prices. We establish that the equilibrium price of food will be growing as long as the oil stock is being depleted, and beyond if demand is growing. An analysis of the effects of the productivity of land use in either the food or the biofuel sectors is carried out. It is shown that, with a highly inelastic demand for food, an increase in the productivity of land in agriculture will decrease the price of food in the short-run, only to increase it in the long-run as the stock of fossil fuel is depleted.     

能源价格对宏观经济的影响——基于可计算一般均衡(CGE)的分析

石油与煤炭价格上涨将对中国经济造成什么样的影响,其影响度与中国现阶段的经济特点的相关性,以及如何应对能源价格上涨的影响,都是政府宏观决策需要研究的重大问题。本文运用CGE方法研究了这些问题,尤其是对石油与煤炭价格上涨影响程度的对比,填补了这一方面的研究空白。结果表明:能源价格上涨对中国经济具有紧缩作用,但对不同产业的紧缩程度不一致,能源价格除了影响经济增长,还将推动产业结构变化。对大多数产业而言,相同比例的价格上涨,煤炭的紧缩作用是石油紧缩作用的2至3倍;对于非能源密集型的服务业紧缩幅度也达3倍,石油和煤炭的经济紧缩作用程度不一致与目前中国能源消费结构基本吻合,2007年中国煤炭消费占一次能源的70%,而石油消费仅占20%。本文最后就如何应对能源价格上涨的影响提出建议。     

Do Chinese executives reward for luck?

This paper examines the sensitivity of executive compensation to luck based on Chinese listed companies. To identify the causal effect, we rely on companies’ market performances driven by exogenous oil prices. We document a positive relationship between executive compensation and market performance driven by oil prices, which support the story of pay for luck. Moreover, by introducing a natural experiment China in 2015, i.e., the policy of “CEO compensation limit” in state-owned firms, we show that the shock of CEO compensation limit significantly weakens the effect of pay-for-luck. We further show that there is asymmetry in pay for luck. Specifically, when oil prices rise, executive compensation is more sensitive to good luck. In addition, the sensitivity of executives to pay-for-luck is more pronounced in firms with state-owned, higher equity concentration, and related party transaction.