The dynamics of trade and competition

We estimate a version of the Melitz and Ottaviano [Melitz, Marc J. and Ottaviano, Gianmarco I.P., 2008, Market size, trade, and productivity, Review of Economic Studies 75(1), pp. 295-316.] model of international trade with firm heterogeneity. The model is constructed to yield testable implications for the dynamics of prices, productivity and markups as functions of openness to trade at a sectoral level. The theory lends itself naturally to a difference in differences estimation, with international differences in trade openness at the sector level reflecting international differences in the competitive structure of markets. Predictions are derived for the effects of both domestic and foreign openness on each economy. Using disaggregated data for EU manufacturing over the period 1989-1999 we find short run evidence that trade openness exerts a competitive effect, with prices and markups falling and productivity rising. The response of profit margins to openness has implications on the conduct of monetary policy. Consistent with the predictions of some recent theoretical models we find some, albeit weaker, support that the long run effects are more ambiguous and may even be anti-competitive. Domestic trade liberalization also appears to induce pro-competitive effects on overseas markets.     

Understanding Developing Country Strategic Responses to the Enhancement of Food Safety Standards

This paper explores the competing concepts of ‘standards as barriers’ and ‘standards as catalysts’ in the context of food safety standards in international trade in agricultural and food products. Through a review of existing evidence of the impact of food safety standards on developing country exports of agricultural and food products and the results of a series of country‐ and product‐specific case studies, it is suggested that food safety standards can act as both a barrier to trade and the basis of competitive positioning for developing countries in international markets. This suggests that broad conclusions about the trade effects of food safety standards on developing countries are problematic, rather the level and ways in which agricultural and food exports are impacted can be product, country, standard and even firm‐specific.     

The economic and political arguments for and against social clauses

The globalisation of markets is calling national employment and social legislation increasingly into question, so that not only the international trade union organisations but also the Clinton Administration are calling for workers' rights to be embodied in trade agreements. This article deals both with the fundamental question whether international labour standards serve a useful purpose and the more specific question whether trade agreements are a suitable way of enforcing minimum standards.     

A comparative institutional analysis of agreements on product standards

The WTO and the EU have chosen two different agreements on product standards. While the WTO's approach is primarily based on a “National Treatment” (NT) principle, the EU's approach crucially relies on a principle of “Mutual Recognition” (MR). This paper offers a first look at the comparative performance of these two principles. We show that standards are imposed for levels of externalities that are too low under NT and too high under MR. This suggests that NT should be preferred to MR when the amount of trade in goods characterized by high levels of externalities is large.     

应对欧盟“三绿”广东企业何去何从

中国与欧盟在双边经贸关系迅速发展的同时，也存在一些有待克服的矛盾与障碍。欧盟在某些行业和领域设置技术的绿色壁垒，在一定程度上影响了双边经贸关系的进一步发展。绿色贸易壁垒是一种新的非关税壁垒。欧盟以环境标准、绿色标志和市场准入条件为借口，限制和阻止发展中国家的产品进入其市场。绿色壁垒正在成为21世纪初广东企业提高国际竞争力的巨大障碍。因此，广东必须尽早采取措施，接受绿色考验，突破绿色壁垒重围。     

EU卫生标准对发展中国家渔业产品的影响及对策

欧盟对发展中国家渔业产品实施严格的卫生标准以及标准的多层次、复杂性和不统一形成了对发展中国家产品的技术性贸易壁垒,发展中国家为维持或拓展发达国家市场,付出了直接成本、间接成本、隐合成本和风险增加的代价.发展中国家可以通过产业共性技术研发在形成本国产业自主技术标准的基础上,与发达国家建立互认机制等来跨越TBT.     

Investing in consumer confidence through genetically modified labelling: an evaluation of compliance options and their marketing challenges for Australian firms

A significant number of studies have examined aspects of consumer responses towards genetically modified foods (GMFs). However, much of this effort has resulted in somewhat mixed findings which have not added real value in terms of providing viable directions for international and national organisations concerned with the labelling of GMFs. This is particularly true in an environment where labelling regulation is increasingly inconsistent and may therefore present real barriers to international trade and the marketing and sales of these food products.

The aim of this article therefore is to shed light on the extent to which the labelling impositions on genetically modified foods would impact on the overall viability of the GMF industry particularly from an international and firm perspective. To this end, a selection of literatures that cover labelling issues in Europe, USA, Canada and Australasia were distilled in order to better understand the pros and cons of labelling disclosures globally and from these present a platform for future marketing and implementation scenarios in Australia.

On the basis of this literature synthesis, we propose that the success of the GMF imperative is contingent on two levels of compliance. First, at the global level, there is need for greater international consensus regarding uniformity of standards of regulation that would allow for fair trade particularly through such bodies as the World Trade Organisation. By implication, Australia would require to adopt levels of compliance that are comparable to the stringent European Union requirements in order to be able to access those markets and any others. Second, we note that at the firm level, whilst production costs in developing appropriate labelling disclosures can be expected to rise on account of higher standards of compliance, these would be more than offset by the increase in consumer confidence as a consequence of the opportunity to make more informed choices. This in turn would generate positive Word of Mouth most likely resulting in increased uptake and adoption of GMFs generally thus allowing for disclosure costs to fall over time.     

The International Activities of Japanese Retailers

Despite the upsurge of academic and commercial interest in the changes taking place in the retail sector within Japan, little has been published on the international activities of Japanese retailers. This paper illustrates the range and scale of activities.which have been undertaken by such companies. While Europe and America were favourite destinations up until the mid-1980s, most Japanese retailers have now refocused their expansion plans on Asia as the level of consumers' disposable income has risen and trade barriers have been lowered. At the same time, the early entrants into international markets, the development stores, have been joined by companies operating supermarkets, convenience stores, clothing stores, electrical outlets and so on. The paper considers the nature of these changes and the factors which have driven them.     

技术性贸易措施在欧盟外贸管制法中的运用

欧盟电器两指令制定有哪些背景与内容,其实施又有哪些影响。技术性贸易措施在欧盟外贸管制法中的功能运用对我国《对外贸易法》具有重要的借鉴意义。     

The Impacts of Alignment with Global Product Standards on Exports of Firms in Developing Countries

Complying with global standards and technical norms can be costly, making them potential impediments to trade, but it can also expand export opportunities. Two policies available to governments are alignment of domestic technical regulations with international standards and entry into mutual recognition agreements (MRAs). We study the effects of such decisions on the volume of exports to developed markets by firms in developing countries, using data from a World Bank firm‐level survey of awareness of global product norms. Both standards alignment and MRAs are associated with more exports to developed countries, but only MRAs significantly promote exports. This finding is consistent with theoretical predictions that MRAs should reduce the fixed costs of exporting more than standards alignment, permitting more firms to enter export markets in higher volumes. Governments in developing countries hoping to encourage exports may wish to favour the negotiation of mutual recognition of testing and certification procedures with major trading partners as a more affirmative avenue to expanding international sales.     

中国与欧盟贸易互补性和竞争性的实证研究

运用贸易强度指数和出口相似性指数分别测算1999—2006年间中国与欧盟新老三成员国的贸易互补程度和贸易竞争程度,实证结果表明:中国与欧盟整体的贸易密切程度近年来都在逐步上升,但是与欧盟的贸易还有很大的潜力,其中与欧盟新成员国的贸易潜力大于与欧盟老成员国的贸易潜力;近年来中国与匈牙利、捷克、德国在世界市场上的出口竞争程度越来越激烈,尤其是与德国的出口竞争程度上升得最快。     

Quality Measures in Food Trade: The Indian Experience

World trade in food has expanded significantly over the years and traditional tariff barriers have reduced with increasing commitments under the WTO. The industrialised countries potentially offer higher returns to food exporters from developing countries, but also pose a greater challenge in market access through stringent safety and quality standards. This paper analyses how this has impacted the Indian marine export industry, and the industry response to this challenge. The large firms are upgrading to signal quality in the OECD markets, while the small firms remain below the quality mark and are catering to other developing country markets where standards are not as stringent. Quality certification has thus become the basis of product differentiation and affected the pattern of trade. On the institutional front, a significant positive change is evident, with the Indian government taking measures to raise safety standards in the domestic food processing sector and increasing the credibility of its export certification agency abroad. There are also cooperative initiatives to improve testing facilities and promote equivalence of certification with OECD countries. The two‐pronged approach of investment in upgrading the food processing industry and promoting international partnership in certification with destination markets offers a good model to address the continuous quality challenge facing other food exporting developing countries.     

Food Safety Issues,Trade and WTO Rules: A Developing Country Perspective

The SPS Agreement and the related WTO dispute settlement mechanism are an important first step in strengthening the global trade architecture, bringing in greater transparency and orderly conditions to world food trade. However, implementation of the new trade rules has turned out to be a more complex task than the traditional market access issues handled by the WTO. Several factors, including inadequate financial and technical resources, have constrained devel‐oping countries from becoming effective participants in the implementation process, and there is widespread suspicion that SPS regulations are being used as hidden protectionist devices by developed countries. However, despite all the problems, some developing countries have been quite successful in penetrating developed country food markets; they have done so by accepting the consumer preferences and standards in quality‐sensitive high‐income markets and implementing domestic supply‐side measures. While making full use of available international assistance initiatives, developing countries should view the task of complying with SPS standards not just as a barrier but also as an opportunity to upgrade quality standards and market sophistication in the food export sector.     

技术壁垒对我国出口贸易的影响及我国的应对措施

我国是受技术壁垒影响最严重的国家之一,其原因是科学技术水平低、工业化程度差,我国出口产品质量难以达到发达国家相应的要求,同时国外信息采集力度不够造成的信息闭塞也加重了我国受技术壁垒的影响。政府方面应建立国外技术壁垒的预警机制,建立与国外权威认证机构的相互认可机制,加强参与国际标准化活动,积极采用国际标准;企业应完善质量认证体系,提高我国出口产品的竞争力,积极开发新的贸易市场,积极寻求与政府、行业协会以及与外国企业之间的协调与合作。     

How Do Differing Standards Increase Trade Costs? The Case of Pallets

The pallet is a platform used for storing, handling and transporting products. There are hundreds of different pallet sizes around the world. The case of pallets is examined to illustrate the impact of multiplicity of standards on trade costs. We select this case because pallets are used all over the world, pallet standards are not too sophisticated, and data on pallet standards and costs are to some extent available. The paper examines why there are so many different pallet standards, the associated trade costs and the reasons why countries have not harmonised pallet sizes to eliminate such costs. It then presents options for exporters to mitigate the adverse effects of standards multiplicity while complying with destination markets’ standard requirements. The range of options is limited for exporters from less developed countries because of the lack of rental and exchange pallet markets. To mitigate the costs of this multiplicity of standards, the international community's strategy should focus on developing awareness of the cost of multiplicity of standards and actively supporting standardisation.     

Beyond the Information Technology Agreement: Harmonisation of Standards and Trade in Electronics

Product standards can have a dual impact on costs and, thus, on trade. They can impose costs on exporters as it may be necessary to adapt products for specific markets (cost effect). In contrast, standards can reduce exporters’ information costs as they convey information on product characteristics (informational effect). Using a new World Bank database of European standards for electronic products, we examine the net impact of internationally harmonised European standards on European Union imports. We find that European Union standards for electronic products that are harmonised to international standards have a significant and a positive net effect on trade. The results suggest that efforts to promote trade in electronic products could be complemented by steps to promote standards harmonisation. This might include, for example, restarting talks to extend the WTO’s Information Technology Agreement to commitments to harmonise national standards in electronic products.     

高外贸依存度下我国外贸结构性风险分析及调整策略

近年来我国外贸依存度不断攀升并大大超出世界平均水平，这一方面体现了我国与世界经济接轨进程加快，另一方面也暴露出了我国进出口商品和市场存在的结构性问题。本文分析了高外贸依存度下我国外贸所面临的结构性风险，并提出了相应的调整策略。     

我国应对农产品出口技术性贸易壁垒的策略

技术性贸易壁垒在当今国际贸易中的影响日益强化,加入WTO以来,中国出口农产品频繁遭遇国外技术性贸易壁垒的冲击,这严重阻碍了中国农产品出口,给出口农产品的相关行业及生产经营者造成了严重损失。通过研究技术壁垒对中国农产品出口的影响状况,提出应建立与国际接轨的农产品质量安全标准,提高农产品质量,企业应积极开拓新市场,实施市场多元化战略。     

The High-Value Commodity Export Effects of Standards in Africa

ABSTRACT

The stringency in standards usage, especially in developed markets, has trade effects, particularly for Africa. Thus, this study investigated the export effects of the EU standards for Africa in a two-step, Helpman et al. (2008) model for two high-value commodities. In all, 52 African countries were considered from 1995 to 2012. This study finds that fish standards are trade enhancing at the extensive margins, but not at the intensive margins. However, vegetable standards are trade inhibiting at both the extensive and intensive margins. Thus, these findings suggest that the impacts of standards on exports are commodity-specific.     

International trade in services: A portrait of importers and exporters

We provide a novel set of stylized facts on firms engaging in international trade in services, using unique data on firm-level exports and imports from the world's second largest services exporter, the United Kingdom (UK). We show that only a fraction of UK firms engage in international trade in services, that trade participation varies widely across industries and that service traders are different from non-traders in terms of size, productivity and other firm characteristics. We also provide detailed evidence on the trading patterns of service exporters and importers, such as the number of markets served, the value of exports and imports per market and the share of individual markets in overall sales. We interpret these facts in the light of existing theories of international trade in services and goods. Our results demonstrate that firm-level heterogeneity is a key feature of services trade. Also, we find many similarities between services and goods trade at the firm level and conclude that existing heterogeneous firm models for goods trade will be a good starting point for explaining trade in services as well.