Who were these bike lanes built for? Social-spatial inequities in Vancouver's bikeways, 2001–2016

Over the past 15 years, Vancouver, British Columbia, has made substantial investments to their bikeway network, adding over 150 km of protected bike lanes, painted bike lanes, and local street bikeways. This investment in bicycling infrastructure corresponded with increases in city-wide commuting to work by bicycle (from 4.1% in 2001 to 6.1% in 2016). However, there has not been an examination as to who has benefited from the expansion of Vancouver's bikeway network. This study aimed to examine whether increases in bikeway access corresponded with increases in bicycle commuting, whether there are socio-demographic inequities in bikeway access, and if these inequities changed over a fifteen-year period from 2001 to 2016. Using census data and municipal open datasets, we considered access to bikeways overall, and also to specific types of bikeways (protected bike lanes, painted bike lanes, local street bikeways) which confer different comfort and safety benefits. We fit a series of non-spatial and spatial Poisson models using integrated nested Laplace approximation, with random effects for census tract. We found disparities in access did exist and that inequities in access to bikeways have not changed over time. Areas with more children have less access to protected bike lanes (RR: 0.69, 95% CI: 0.55–0.87) and areas where more Chinese people live have less access to protected bike lanes (RR: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.59–0.96). Areas with more university-educated adults had more infrastructure—particularly local street bikeways (RR: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.02–1.21). Indeed, areas with bike commuting had more local street bikeways (RR: 1.15, 95% CI: 1.03–1.27). Our analysis sheds light on certain inequities in the distribution of bikeways in Vancouver which have persisted over time, and can be used to inform policy actions to promote mobility across all neighbourhoods.     

The Singapore Gold Circle: Perceptions of local customers of travel agencies

The Singapore Tourism Board has created an ambitious service quality programme, the Singapore Gold Circle (SGC), for the local tourism industry. To date, the Board has made the programme available to the retail, travel agent and tour operator, and spa sectors. This study looks at the SGC to determine, from a travel consumer perspective and with a focus on the travel agency sector, the value and effectiveness of the programme. In addition to the value of the findings to the local tourism community, if successful, such a programme may serve as a blueprint for other national tourism organisations or regional associations seeking to raise the quality of their product. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of neighborhood types & socio-demographics on activity space

This paper examines the relationships between socio-demographic characteristics, travel time, the built environment and resulting average activity spaces for all activities and non-work activities separately using data from the 2012 Northeast Ohio Regional Travel Survey. Multiple regression models are developed to analyze these relationships at individual level. First K-means cluster analysis is conducted to create seven neighborhood types based on five built environment variables. These new neighborhood types are used as discrete explanatory variables to explain average activity spaces, while controlling for travel time, individual and household features, access to transit facilities and the job-population balance. The modeling results indicate that residential location characteristics have significant influences on activity spaces. People living in places away from suburban and rural areas and with a high mix of population and employment tend to have smaller activity spaces. Moreover, this study finds out that while the effects of some explanatory variables (such as age and gender) vary for all activities and non-work activities, socially disadvantaged people (such as the elderly and low income households) generally experience smaller activity spaces.     

Measuring the inequality of accessible trams in Melbourne

In Melbourne, public policy has recently been enacted to improve access to the tram service with an emphasis upon people with a disability. Achieving that objective requires two elements. One is a low-floor tram and two is an elevated tram stop platform that facilitates boarding the tram. Currently the fleet of trams in Melbourne is made up of high-floor and low-floor designs, thus accessible services are unevenly distributed. In addition, construction of new tram stop platforms has been uneven. This suggests a form of inequality in accessible tram services for the disabled.Several studies of transport services have addressed this issue using the Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve calculations as seen in studies of disadvantaged groups such as the elderly. This research utilizes those approaches to estimate the current access of the disabled population to trams services in Melbourne. The approach compares the geography of the total and accessible tram services with the geography of the total and disabled population using the Gini coefficient and Lorenz curve.The results show that there is inequality in the accessible trams amongst people with a disability in Melbourne (Gini = 0.66) as 70% of the disabled population has access to only 22% of the accessible tram supply. In comparison, considering the total tram supply and the entire population, (Gini = 0.48) 70% of the population shares 40% of the tram supply. Hence, at this stage the provision of accessible tram services for people with a disability falls well below that of the general population. These results provide an insight into the current tram service inequality and can be used as a reference for future tram system investment. Further, the approach could be used to increase awareness of this matter and encourage an inclusive and sustainable public transport planning and development in both local and global contexts.     

Exploring heterogeneity in travel time expenditure of aging populations in the Netherlands: results of a CHAID analysis

The aim of this paper is to contribute to the increasing literature on travel behavior and time use of the elderly. The Dutch National Travel Survey, administered in 2009, was used as a data source. First, various facets of activity-travel patterns of the elderly were compared against overall sample averages. Results indicate that the new generation of elderly people do not differ that much from other age groups in terms of their activity-travel behavior. Differences in behavior can be largely understood in terms of constraints acting on agendas. Moreover, travel patterns of elderly are affected by socio-demographic variables. Second, to further qualify the average findings, the Chi-square automatic interaction detection (CHAID) method was applied to explore heterogeneity among the elderly in terms of travel time expenditure. It is analyzed how differences in travel time co-vary with socio-demographics, in addition to activity type, activity duration and travel aspects. The results suggest that the aging population can be systematically broken down into several homogeneous cohort segments. Travel time of elderly groups depends significantly on transport modes, travel motivation, and seven socio-demographic variables (gender, age, living environment, personal net-income, household size and season). Moreover, there is less heterogeneity in travel time of elderly who are older than 75 years old. However, for younger elderly people, especially the group aged from 65 to 74 years old, heterogeneity affects their travel.     

Heterogeneity in physical activity participation of older adults: A latent class analysis

Participation in leisure and transport-related physical activities is generally viewed as the main means of increasing overall physical activity levels of older adults. The success of any intervention strategy depends on how well the strategy fits older people's physical activity patterns. This study therefore examines heterogeneity in physical activity patterns of older adults and the relationships between these patterns and socio-demographic and neighborhood environmental characteristics. This is done using a latent class multinomial logit model based on one-week diary data collected on 363 Dalian Chinese older adults aged 60 and over in 2017. The results show that two segments of physical activity patterns of older adults can be identified: leisure physical activities oriented and both transport-related and leisure physical activities oriented. Age, physical limitation and having grandchildren in the household have an important influence on physical activity patterns of older people. However, there are no significant relationships between physical activity patterns and various environmental characteristics, except accessibility of local shops, condition of footpaths and safety from crime. The empirical findings have implications for the development of tailored interventions to maintain or promote physical activity of older adults.     

Rural tourism and the development of less favoured areas—between rhetoric and practice

Tourism has, in recent times, been advocated as a particularly efficient way to promote the development of the so‐called less favoured regions, mostly inland and mountain, owing to its potential for employment and income creation and the synergies it is able to generate in other sectors of activity. Based on the results of empirical research carried out in two distinct inland zones of Portugal, this article tries to demonstrate that a wide gap and considerable contradictions are emerging between the rhetoric and the real benefits that tourism has been producing in the local societies and economies of these regions. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thinking regional and acting local: Assessing the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on commute mode in Montreal,Canada

Accessibility indicators, measuring the ease of reaching destinations via a specific mode of transport, are increasingly used in planning and research as they support integrated land use and transport planning. Research has shown that increased local accessibility (walkability for example) is associated with an increase in walking mode share, whereas increase in public transport accessibility is associated with a greater use of public transport. Yet, while public transport agencies are promoting the combination of active and public transport options to address one's diverse mobility needs, local and regional accessibility are rarely addressed together in research or practice. This research aims to determine the joint influence of local and regional accessibility on the transport mode used for work trips in the Montreal metropolitan region, while controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. Data come from the 2013 Origin-Destination survey 2016 Canadian census, 2017 public transport data DMTI Enhanced points of interests. A multinomial logistic model is used to understand how local and regional accessibility are associated with walking, cycling or taking public transport to work across individuals. The results demonstrate that increases in both local and regional accessibility are associated with a higher probability of using sustainable modes. The predicted probabilities suggest that local accessibility is more closely associated with a decrease in car use. This study sheds light on the interaction between local and regional land use and transport systems and is of relevance to planners and policymakers wishing to develop neighborhoods that support the use of sustainable modes.     

Comparing the impacts of local land use and urban spatial structure on household VMT and GHG emissions

To highlight the role of sustainable urban spatial structure in reducing household vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and CO₂ emissions, this empirical study of the 121 largest urban areas (UAs) in the U.S. compares the effects of local land use and UA scale spatial structure in a multilevel analysis framework. The results show that centralized population and mezzo scale jobs-housing balance as well as higher UA population density can significantly reduce VMT and CO₂ emissions. The combined effects of all UA level variables, including population-weighted density (PWD), are found to be on par with the elasticity of VMT with regard to a census tract level compactness index. Further, we find that urban spatial structure moderates local urban form effects on travel behavior. For example, while 10% more compact census tracts are associated with 5% fewer VMT in UAs with the sample average PWD, such as St. Louis and Pittsburgh, this estimated local effect increases to 7.5% and 10% in UAs where PWD is as high as in Chicago and New York, respectively. The findings of this study strongly support policy programs that aim to boost “articulated densities” in the urban region and call for stronger institutional frameworks for regional planning.     

Determinants of sustainable mode choice in different socio-cultural contexts: A comparison of Rome and San Francisco

This paper is a part two of a study investigating the relative importance of the built environment, socio-demographic, and attitudinal factors on mode choice. A semi-experimental approach that aims to measure causal effects of the built environment is utilized. This paper reports spatial analysis, survey and modeling results for San Francisco, CA, USA and compares the results with a previous similar study in Rome, Italy. Results reveal that the local street network's integration is important in both cities and that in both cases built environment seems to have higher impact on mode choice than attitudes and socio-demographic factors. Built environment is especially impactful when diversity, design quality, density and syntactical accessibility are combined. In San Francisco willingness to spend time walking, biking or taking transit is lower than in Rome, and residents are more sensitive to concerns about safety and security. Work travel is more affected by demographic and attitudinal factors in San Francisco than in Rome implying that in San Francisco, nonwork travel behavior may have slightly higher potential to respond positively to improvements in the built environment than work trips. In Rome, peer pressure, cost sensitivity, and probiking attitude can compensate for lack of some built environmental characteristics, but not in San Francisco, where only protransit attitude has this effect. Moreover, lack of any built environmental characteristics reduces the possibility of sustainable mode choice more dramatically in San Francisco pointing to the higher importance of investments on improving the built environment rather than marketing efforts to change attitudes.     

Global Heritage and Local Problems: Some Examples from Indonesia

This article examines what happens to those who live in and around monuments as a result of World Heritage designation. Using the examples of Borobudur and Prambanan in Indonesia as study sites, it is argued that the values that local people attach to heritage are often different from, although not necessarily less important than, the values ascribed by international agencies, government officials, tourism developers and others. However, their perspectives are often not adequately represented or respected by other participants in the planning and management of sites, to the detriment of both the plans and the people. The tendency to adopt top-down, rational comprehensive planning procedures has resulted in the disenfranchisement of local people, giving greater prominence to expressions of national, 'official' culture and nationalism at the expense of local culture. It has tended to freeze sites and displace human activities, effectively excluding local people from their own heritage.     

Relative logistics sprawl: Measuring changes in the relative distribution from warehouses to logistics businesses and the general population

The logistics sprawl – warehousing and distribution centers relocating farther away from central urban areas to the urban periphery – has been widely examined in multiple global trade gateways. The spatial shifts have been attributed to the systematic and geographic restructuring of goods production and distribution systems at the global scale. More recently, growing online shopping sales and demand for instant delivery have put tremendous pressure on online retail businesses to locate order fulfillment centers in urban areas with direct access to the consumer markets. Has the trend of sprawling warehouses reversed? Have warehouses been relocating closer to consumer demand? In this research, I use a relative distribution measure to quantify the spatial distribution of warehouses relative to the logistics sector, the goods movement sector, and the general population over time. The main data source is ZIP Code Business Patterns from 2003 to 2016 with the study area of the 64 largest US metropolitan areas. In 2016, warehouses were most closely distributed relative to logistics sectors (38.6 km), followed by goods movement sectors (41.2 km), and population (43.5 km). From 2003 to 2016, the distance between warehouses and related businesses has increased, but the extent varies with respect to metropolitan and warehouse size. The trend of increasing relative distance from warehouses to related businesses stopped since the economic recession in 2008. Relative distribution measures are significantly correlated with internal ground shipment ton-kilometers but only in large trade gateways.     

Transport mode choice in South East Asia: Investigating the relationship between transport users’ perception and travel behaviour in Johor Bahru,Malaysia

The worldwide increase in private car dependency poses a set of significant environmental, economic and social sustainability challenges that continue to undermine the urban quality of life. Rapid motorisation, particularly in South East Asia (SEA), has emerged as a global concern given the region’s cumulative population, rate of industrialisation, and large-scale urbanisation. Thus, there is a compelling need to enhance our understanding of the underlying dynamics of how people perceive and use transportation such that transport planning is better placed to address the current, unsustainable travel patterns in SEA. Despite this need, there has been relatively limited SEA-based research that has endeavoured to examine travel perceptions and transport mode choice from a non-instrumental perspective. This research redresses this deficit by investigating the relationship between transport users’ perceptions and travel behaviours within SEA, with a particular focus on psychosocial drivers of transport mode choice interfaced with more traditional instrumental measures.Spatially stratified survey data have been collected in a case study area, Johor Bahru, Malaysia, comprising users from different transport user groups. Employing regression modelling, drivers of individual’s travel behaviour are examined. Results highlight the merit in recognising the role of non-instrumental motives alongside instrumental motives to explain transport mode choice. We conclude by highlighting that transport mode choices are motivated by a range of locational, socio-demographic, psychological and cultural determinants. The current research has contributed to a better understanding of transport mode choice in Johor Bahru and provides a foundation for future SEA-based travel behaviour research. Studies in this area can inform more sustainable travel behaviour in the SEA region.     

Policy integration: What will it take to achieve more sustainable transport solutions in cities?

There has been a rhetorical shift in paradigm from predict and provide for road transport to one which addresses sustainable mobilities. This paper explores the organizational and institutional issues of policy integration and the implementation mechanisms which could bring about a sustainable transport system predicated on the reduction of CO₂ emissions and non-renewable resource use and which produces more socially equitable outcomes. The paper first outlines the English policy context in terms of responsibilities, powers and resources available to local transport planners, and identifies the tools of government that can be more efficiently applied to effect a more sustainable transport system which specifically reduces CO₂ emissions. A snapshot of transport decision-making in five local transport authorities in England is presented, using a case study methodology, which explores the joint working practices of practitioners in five public policy sectors that influence accessibility patterns. The case study highlights the norms and values of the local public administrators who affect local transport mobility and how they in turn are hindered both by the rigidity of central government direction and an insufficiency of implementation tools.     

The Socio-cultural Impacts of Tourism Development in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The objective of this article is to assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This paper largely relied on the research work and reports by the author in the Okavango Delta from 1998 to 2004. In all instances, both primary and secondary data sources were used. However, much of the paper is based on the results of a survey carried out between April 2001 and July 2002. Findings indicate that tourism development in the Okavango Delta has both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts. Some of the positive socio-cultural impacts include income generation and employment opportunities from both community-based tourism projects and safari companies, infrastructure development such as airport and airstrips, tarred roads, hotels, lodges and camps, the improvement of social services such as banking, health, telecommunications and access to electricity. The negative socio-cultural impacts include enclave tourism, racism, relocation of traditional communities, breaking up of the traditional family structure, increase in crime, prostitution, the adoption of the Western safari style of dressing and a traditionally unacceptable ‘vulgar’ language by young people. This article argues that tourism needs to be sensitive to local cultural norms and beliefs for it to be accepted by local people and promote sustainable development. This is possible if all the stakeholders (government, operators and local people) collaborate in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. This can minimise the negative cultural impacts and instead promote the positive.     

Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective

This paper examines the distribution channels structure as well as the underlying factors influencing the most prominent channel choices within the adventure tourism industry. It is based on in‐depth interviews with adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand. The findings suggest that the distribution structure is similar to other attraction sectors and that business size has some bearing on the ‘length’ of the distribution chains. However, regardless of business size, the sector places a clear priority on ‘at destination’ distribution, and the factors underlying this choice were found to be varied and reflective of both sector‐specific demand and supply characteristics. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Tourism Development: The Challenges of Achieving Sustainable Livelihoods in Bhutan's Remote Reaches

Merak–Sakteng is a remote area of Bhutan, which is targeted for development of tourism owing to the unique culture and way of life of the semi‐nomadic local ‘Brokpa’ people, whose livelihoods depend on herding yaks and sheep. These livestock enter forests where local residents and government see their grazing as threatening their crops and causing environmental degradation. The semi‐nomadic life centred on livestock, which has long been essential to Brokpa culture and economy, thus comes under threat. The opening of Merak–Sakteng to tourism is intended to address this conflict by lessening the Brokpas' economic dependence on livestock. This paper reports on research into the potential of tourism to transform this ethnic minority's economic way of life through the introduction of tourism into the local livelihood mix. Sustainable livelihoods issues are investigated through a consideration of both economic and socio‐cultural aspects of the local way of life, based on observation, and the findings of a survey of local people, semi‐structured interviews with village leaders and government officials concerning development of the area. The survey found that despite land‐use conflicts and limited grazing land, Brokpas still aspired to spend money gained from tourism on purchasing more yaks, which may escalate land‐use conflicts and threaten environmental sustainability. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Activity spaces: measures of social exclusion?

The paper provides a first investigation of the suitability of different measures of activity space size to identify persons at risk of social exclusion. This would be a new departure for the measurement of social exclusion, which so far has relied either on aggregate measures of locations or cross-sectional data of individuals.The size of a person's activity space can only be estimated with information reflecting a longer time horizon. In this paper the six-week travel diary survey (Mobidrive) is used, which was conducted in two German cities in 1999. About 95% of all local trips were coded for 300 respondents (about 45,000 trips).The paper develops three possible measurement approaches of increasing complexity (confidence ellipse, kernel density estimates, shortest paths networks). The analysis revealed that the main driver of the size of the activity spaces is the overall number of unique locations visited by the respondents and to a lesser extent, their socio-demographic characteristics. In particular, the groups most often consider to be at risk of social exclusion (female, lower income, elderly) did not show significantly different activity spaces.     

Transport policy instruments and transport-related social exclusion in rural Republic of Ireland

One of the core commitments of rural development is to ensure social integration whereby all people get the opportunity to realise their full human potential. Despite this, there is still poor regard given to how people live and work in rural areas and how economic and social policies impact on their quality of life. Using the example of the Republic of Ireland, this paper explores how rural development policies are being undermined by other policy instruments (specifically transport) which have a contradictory impact and, rather than relieve rural disadvantage, further compound the exclusion of some sectors of rural society. Assessing rural development and transport policy instruments; trends emerging from the most recent 2002 Census Data; and case study evidence relating to the rural transport initiative (RTI) in the Republic of Ireland, this paper confirms the lack of integrated policy thinking and in some circumstances the exacerbation of further rural disadvantage.