A conceptual framework for the growth and redistribution debate in South Africa

It is possible to identify two generic schools of thought on the emotive question of the racially skewed income and wealth distribution in South Africa. Some economists argue in favour of ‘growth through redistribution’, and postulate that redistributive policies can enhance economic growth, especially by increasing labour productivity and generating greater political stability. Others support ‘redistribution through growth’, and emphasise the efficiency losses attendant upon any meaningful redistribution of existing income and wealth. The debate between these two schools of thought can be examined and evaluated within a common analytical framework. In so doing, it appears that, although proponents of both points of view have some compelling theoretical arguments, the matter can only be settled empirically.     

Optimal taxation and risk-sharing arrangements in an economic federation

This paper analyzes optimal taxation and risk-sharing arrangementsin an economy with two levels of government. Both levels providepublic goods and finance their expenditures via labor incometaxation, where the tax base is responsive to the private agents'labor supply decisions. The localities are assumed to experiencedifferent random productivity shocks, meaning that the privatelabor supply decision as well as the choices of income tax ratesare carried out under uncertainty. Part of the central government'sdecision problem is then to provide tax revenue sharing betweenthe local governments. The optimal degree of revenue sharingdepends on whether or not the localities/regions differ withrespect to labor supply incentives.     

Distribution,taxation and employment in an open economy

Summary If taxes on labour income are passed on in wages the balanced budget multiplier may be negative. The present paper analyses this problem from a theoretical point of view applying a linearized version of a model for the small open economy. The model is dynamic, because account is taken of capital accumulation. Short-run and long-run solutions are expressed in terms of fiscal policy variables, a wage push variable, the price level abroad and world demand. Numerical examples are supplemented to illustrate the analytical results. Acknowledgement is due for his helpful comment to S.K. Kuipers     

Taxes, efficiency, and redistribution: Discriminatory taxation of villages in Ottoman Palestine, Southern Syria, and Transjordan in the sixteenth century

Governments can tax productive activities with either uniform or discriminatory rates among taxpayers. Although discriminatory rates can cause productive inefficiency and require high cost of administration, they can be preferred because of their advantage in distributional flexibility. This paper studies the discriminatory taxation of production in the Fertile Crescent. Using information from the Ottoman tax registers, it examines the basis, distortionary effects, and distributional consequences of discriminatory rates quantitatively. The results challenge widely held beliefs about the basis for discriminatory rates in this region and the Ottoman government’s motivation in adapting systems of taxation in newly conquered lands.     

Environmental taxation and employment

Summary This paper explores how environmental taxes affect employment. It argues that the case for environmental taxes should rest on environmental grounds rather than possibly favorable employment effects. Using pollution taxes to shift the tax burden away from labor is likely to be difficult for economic, social, and political reasons. Moreover, these taxes are likely to raise the overall tax burden-even if the revenues are recycled as lower distortionary taxes. To stimulate employment, governments should rely on alternative instruments targeted at the labor market.     

Nonlinear taxation and punishment

The paper analyzes nonlinear tax schedules that are identified by maximizing a welfare function represented by a weighted summation of net utilities over a set of n  ≥ 3 differing individuals. It is demonstrated that some of the feasible and Pareto efficient tax schedules that satisfy self-selection can only be identified by maximizing a welfare function of the above form if (at least) one of the individuals in the economy is assigned a negative weight.     

Mining enclaves and taxation

This paper examines certain macroeconomic effects of major mining projects in developing countries, paying special attention to the case of Papua New Guinea. It goes on to assess the contribution that such projects can make to economic development indirectly through their contributions to government revenue. This paper reviews existing evidence on the linkage effects of foreign investment in mining projects in developing countries and presents as new evidence the results of a study on the macroeconomic effects of major mining projects in Papua New Guinea. Considerable support is found for the proposition that such projects tend to perform as enclaves, having only weak direct links with host national economies. This paper stresses the importance of applying fiscal arrangements which can be expected to appropriate a large share of the mineral rent from intra-marginal mining projects while preserving the incentive to invest. Fiscal arrangements of this type are being applied in Papua New Guinea and are indeed able to capture very large benefits for the country. In Papua New Guinea the enclave nature of large-scale mining projects is consistent with their making large contributions to progress towards national objectives, and this paper argues that given the application of appropriate fiscal arrangements, this conclusion can be extended to other developing countries.     

Welfare gains from taxation in an open economy: Applied general equilibrium results

This paper uses a general equilibrium trade model with an endogenous labour supply to analyze the effects of changes in domestic taxes. When an open economy has some sectors with scale economies, domestic tax increases may increase social welfare by causing productivity gains which more than compensate for the deadweight welfare loss of taxation.     

Treasury revenue and foreign trade taxation

Zusammenfassung Staatseinnahmen und die Besteuerung des Au\enhandels. — In diesem Aufsatz wird eine vergleichende L?nderstudie durchgeführt, um die fiskalische Bedeutung von Au\enhandelssteuern und deren Beziehung zum Pro-Kopf-Einkommen und zu der Au\enhandelsabh?ngigkeit des Landes zu zeigen. Der Test basiert auf Durchschnittsangaben der Jahre 1972–1978 für 93 L?nder und wird sowohl für die Exporte und Importe zusammen als auch für die Exporte und Importe getrennt durchgeführt. Es zeigt sich, da\ die Einfuhrbesteuerung eine erheblich gr?\ere fiskalische Bedeutung hat als die Ausfuhrbesteuerung. Das gilt sowohl für die Entwicklungsl?nder als auch für die Industriel?nder als Gruppe, obwohl die Exportsteuer für die einzelnen Entwicklungsl?nder ein sehr unterschiedliches Gewicht haben kann. Die fiskalische Bedeutung der Au\enhandelsbesteuerung nimmt ab, wenn das Pro-Kopf-Einkommen ansteigt, jedenfalls dann, wenn eine bestimmte Einkommensschwelle überschritten wird. Diese Hypothese konnte auch aufrechterhalten werden, als im Vergleich zu anderen Studien neuere Daten und eine andere Gruppe von L?ndern benutzt wurden. Die Ergebnisse best?tigen nicht die Behauptung, da\ die Au\enhandelssteuern st?rker als andere Steuern ansteigen, wenn der Au\enhandel an Bedeutung zunimmt.

---

Résumé Les recettes publiques et la taxation du commerce extérieur. — Cet article analyse pour beaucoup de pays l’importance fiscale des taxes sur le commerce et sa relation au revenu per capita et à la dépendance d’un pays du commerce extérieur. Le test, basé sur les données moyennes des années 1972–1978 et des 93 pays, est fait pour les exportations et importations ensemble aussi bien que pour les exportations et importations séparément. Le résultat est que la taxation des importations a une considérablement plus importante fonction fiscale que la taxation des exportations. Ce résultat est valable pour les pays développants aussi bien que pour les pays développés, considérés comme groupe, bien que l’importance de la taxation des exportations puisse considérablement varier parmi des PVD individuels. L’importance fiscale des taxes sur le commerce extérieur se reduit si le revenu per capita accro?t, du moins après le revenu excède un certain seuil. Cette hypothèse est aussi approuvée en utilisant des données et des échantillons de pays beaucoup plus récentes que celles des autres études. Les résultats ne confirment pas l’assertion que les taxes sur le commerce extérieur dépassent des autres sortes de taxe si le commerce extérieur accroêt en importance.

---

Resumen Ingresos del tresoro y tributación al comercio exterior. — Este es un análisis comparativo a traves de países de la importancia de los impuestos al comercio exterior y su relatión con los ingresos per cápita y la dependencia del país del comercio. El test, basado en promedios para los a?os 1972–1978 y cubriendo 93 países, se conduce tanto para el comercio global de importatión y exportatión como para las exportaciones e importaciones separadamente. El resultado es que la tributación a las importaciones tiene una función fiscal considerablemente más importante que la tributación a las exportaciones. Esto es válido tanto para los países en desarrollo como para los países desarrollados considerados como grupo, a pesar de que la importancia de la tributación a las exportaciones puede variar considerablemente entre países en desarrollo particulares. La importancia fiscal de los impuestos al comercio declina en la medida que el ingreso per cápita aumenta, al menos desde el momento en que éste último sobrepasa un cierto umbral. Esta hipótesis ha sido continuada, utilizando datos y muestras de países mucho más recientes que en otros estudios. Los resultados de este test no confirman la exigencia que los impuestos al comercio exterior aumentan por sobre otros tipos de impuestos en la medida que el comercio exterior crese en importancia.

     

Tying governments' hands in commodity taxation

In the 1970s, taxation of 'windfall' profits from primary productsand intervention in trade and production tempted governmentsinto expansionary fiscal policies, whilst stifling the privatesector and depressing growth. However, the experience of themid-1990s coffee boom has so far been more favourable: thoseAfrican countries which liberalised and left a large share ofthe 'windfall' with the private sector, and which committedthemselves to fiscal austerity via adjustment programmes, haveshown better results in terms of fiscal stability, private sectorresponses and economic growth than countries which did not reform.These findings suggest that constraints on discretionary governmentpolicies are desirable, and that domestic institutions and internationalcommitments could serve this purpose.     

Savings,pension rights and taxation

Summary The voluntary saving rate has declined in The Netherlands over the last thirty years. In this paper the increasing share of transfer income in total income, with a high propensity to consume, and the increase in collective pension schemes are simultaneously used to explain this development. Furthermore, the influence of taxes is modelled. The planning horizon of the representative consumer is treated as a parameter to be estimated. The planning horizon obtained (about 4.5 years) appears to be short compared to expected residual lifetime, implying rather small interest elasticities. The estimation results indicate that, in case the obligatory pension schemes are diminished, the representative consumer offsets the loss in pension benefits for 75 per cent by voluntary, additional accumulation of nonhuman wealth in the long run. The working of the model is illustrated by simulation experiments.I wish to thank two anonymous referees, Prof. J. Pen, G.M.M. Gelauff, J.J. Graafland, W. Vossers and other colleagues of the CPB for their helpful comments.     

Economic growth and redistribution in South Africa

The debate over appropriate methods of reducing racial income and wealth inequalities in South Africa has thus far yielded two opposing schools of thought. ‘Growth through redistribution’ and ‘redistribution through growth’ make countervailing claims concerning the efficiency gains and losses attendant upon redistribution. But the relation between economic growth and the redistribution of income and wealth may be more complex than commonly realised. From the literature surrounding Olson's (1982) Rise and Decline of Nations, especially Brock & Magee (1984) and Magee et al (1989), it can be shown that redistributive behaviour can actually increase the rate of economic growth in the short term, and depress growth in the longer term.     

Rebalancing in China: A taxation approach

The rebalancing of the Chinese economy is analyzed through a heterogeneous taxation of various types of firms. Based on a two-country dynamic general equilibrium model, the paper applies tax reforms to raise consumption, reduce some firms' overinvestment (overcapacities) and maintain a high level of welfare.To rebalance consumption and investment, taxation may allow reallocating a part of the labor force to firms that are not overinvesting (via business taxes and social security contributions). Moreover, the correction of distortions in production factor costs (capital and labor) is necessary during certain reforms applied in the model; that is, on the one hand, higher credit costs for firms that face soft budget constraints (via financial transactions taxes) and, on the other hand, a catch-up of foreign firms' wages by domestic firms (via social security contributions).These tax reforms bring welfare benefits to households and stabilize the welfare reaction to productivity shocks. Another interesting result is that in this framework, the rebalancing of the domestic demand in China does not require the readjustment of the external financial position. Indeed, the aggregate savings rate remains high and the supply of domestic assets is reduced.Finally, another model proposes a heterogeneous taxation of consumption across home and foreign goods to enhance consumption.     

Introduction to income inequalities and redistribution in china

This special section presents the main findings about long-run trends in inequality in China and its driving factors as they emerge from a country case study carried out under a UNU-WIDER supported project.¹ Special focus in the umbrella project were on three issues: (i) the role of earnings inequality and its determinants; (ii) the role of top incomes when administrative records or other sources can be combined with household surveys; and (iii) the redistributive impact of public policies. Main findings of the project including those for China results were presented in a special panel during the UNU-WIDER Think Development – Think WIDER development conference held in Helsinki in September 2018.²

1. Motivation

Inequality has once again emerged as a major issue in economic development across the developed and developing world, and addressing this challenge is key in the UN Sustainable Development Agenda. The UNU-WIDER conference on Mapping the Future of Development Economics held in Helsinki in September 2016³ led to the formulation of a project to study inequality in five major developing countries accounting for more than 40 per cent of the world’s population. UNU-WIDER implemented these studies under its Inequality in the Giants project,⁴ designed as part of a broader international effort to shed light on a set of new questions on between-country and within-country inequalities, by generating integrated datasets and applying a consistent methodology to investigate the determinants of inequality dynamics in some of the world’s largest economies. China was included among the five case countries, and the effort included both a series of papers on China, produced under the coordination of Professor Shi Li and various workshops and meetings. Coming to grips with inequality in China is an obvious priority for anyone interested in trends in global inequality; and the present special section contains five key papers produced in the context of the UNU-WIDER project and subsequently accepted for publication by the China Economic Review.

2. Content of the special section

The five papers on inequality in China presented in this special section cover different topics and jointly illustrate a key set of important themes in the recent evolution of China’s income distribution.The opening study by Luo, Li, and Sicular (LLS) provides an overview and analysis of the long-term evolution of inequality in China, while the next three papers — on urban wage inequality, public transfers, and top incomes — each illustrates and delves more deeply into important aspects of the broader trends in inequality.What are the main findings of these papers? The core finding is that inequality in China rose markedly from the 1980s through the early 2000s; only since 2008 has the upward trend stopped or reversed. LLS report and examine the underpinnings of this core finding, using the five waves of the China Household Income Project surveys conducted during 1988-2013. This paper also finds a considerable, ongoing reduction in rural poverty, and a poverty decomposition analysis indicates that this poverty reduction was mostly due to income growth rather than redistribution in rural areas.The second paper by Gustafsson and Wan (GW) is on urban wage inequality from 1988 to 2013 and it sheds further light on the changes in the distribution of wage earnings. The authors highlight that average wages have grown rapidly and that wage inequality increased until 2007. Moreover, age has become weaker and education stronger related with wage. Importantly, the gender wage gap once small widened rapidly between 1995 and 2007, and workers in foreign owned firm and the state sector enjoy a wage premium.While wages are the most important component of income, it is only part of the inequality story. One important additional question is the role of government taxes and transfers. Since the early 2000s, China has embarked on a major effort to put in place a universal social safety net. The study by Cai and Yue (CY), which is the third paper, assess the consequences of these efforts. Their key conclusions include that the same public policy may produce different redistributive implications. Moreover, if the government keeps increasing the social security transfer scale without changing its distribution, then inequality will increase in China. In addition, formal-sector pension takes up the biggest share and is the most un-equalizing sub-item of all social security transfers; and related to the first paper in the special section they argue that the government should spend more on Dibao and rural residents pension to reduce inequality.Arguably, income inequality measured using household survey data understates actual inequality because surveys have difficulty in capturing top incomes. In the Chinese case, concerns about such bias have increased in the past ten years due to the expansion of private wealth and growing numbers of super-rich. The fourth paper by Li, Li, and Wan (LLW) is on top incomes in China and it attempts to correct for this bias using income information for the Chinese super-rich from various sources. They conclude that the Gini coefficient of income inequality increases substantially when samples of top incomes are incorporated.Finally, Gradín and Wu (GW) analyse in the fifth and final study the distribution of income and expenditure in China in a telling comparative perspective with India. Both countries represent two extreme cases in the relationship of inequality using both wellbeing indicators. It emerges that the joint distribution of income and expenditure differs between China and India because there is a higher prevalence of people with a large mismatch between their ranks in income and consumption in India, especially in rural areas, and particularly amongst those reporting low income and high expenditure. The main compositional effects identified are the different demographic and geographical composition of the countries’ populations, mostly the smaller households (especially in rural areas) and the higher level of urbanization in China than in India. The lack of consistency of cross-country comparisons based on income or expenditure calls for the use of hybrid inequality measures combining data on both provided they are available in the same survey.

3. Concluding remarks

The studies brought together in this special section provide telling insights about the trends in inequality in China from which scholars and policy makers can learn a great deal. In a global perspective, further increases in China’s mean income and wealth, both now above the global means, will begin to raise global between-country inequality. This is important in and of itself. Moreover, while we cannot expect that all the world’s poorest countries will follow the same path as China considering that the initial conditions and the international context they face will be very different, the experiences from China do reinforce the observation that much can be done by policy to influence inequality outcomes. In particular, and as argued by Gradin, Leibbrandt, & Tarp, 2020 (forthcoming):“well-functioning labour markets that promote job-creation, decent pay and social inclusion, removing any legal or de facto discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity or place of origin, providing equal access to human and physical capital, and empowering the most disadvantaged population groups, are a key driver of increased equality”.These insights also emerge clearly from the five China studies in this special section.     

Poverty and vulnerability in rural China: effects of taxation

This paper studies the impact of taxation on poverty and ex ante vulnerability of households in rural China based on national household survey data in 1988, 1995 and 2002. It has been confirmed that (i) poverty and vulnerability have reduced significantly with a great deal of geographical disparity; (ii) education, land, and access to infrastructure and irrigation facilities are the key factors to reduce vulnerability; and (iii) the highly regressive tax system increased farmers’ poverty and vulnerability. The abolishment of rural tax since 2006 would thus have a significant negative impact on both poverty and vulnerability of rural households.     

Profit taxation and capital accumulation in a dynamic oligopoly model

We illustrate a differential oligopoly game using the capital accumulation dynamics à la Ramsey. We evaluate the effects of profit taxation, proving that there exists a tax rate yielding the same steady state social welfare as under social planning. Contrary to the static approach, our dynamic analysis shows that, in general, profit taxation affects firms’ decisions concerning capital accumulation and sales. In particular, it has pro-competitive effects provided that the extent of delegation is large enough (and conversely).     

Taxation and the redistribution of income

Conclusion This paper has offered no empirical evidence, and is not trying to argue that after-tax relative wage rates will not change at all in response to a change in the progressivity of the tax structure.⁸ Rather, the point is that there is a market mechanism that causes changes in progressivity to be at least partially offset by changes in the pretax wage structure. This mechanism is not taken into account by any model of redistribution through taxation that treats labor output as a homogeneous factor of production. Treating labor output as homogeneous eliminates adjustments to relative wages that are certain to occur in response to a change in the progressivity of the tax structure. Thus, progressive taxation has less ability to redistribute income than is commonly realized. Any shortcomings in the paper remain the responsibility of the authors.