Monetary policy,bank lending and corporate investment

The purpose of this study is to shed light on the chain of causality from macroeconomic financial policy to the microeconomic investment function. Concretely, we aim to provide an in-depth analysis of the relationships between the monetary policy of central banks, the loan policy of commercial banks, and the investment behavior of firms. We focus on countries that conduct their monetary policy under the inflation-targeting framework. Our empirical analysis with data from Germany, Switzerland and Thailand provides several new insights. First, after controlling for the US monetary policy, the monetary policy in Germany and Thailand appears to influence the banks' lending rate in the short run (i.e. within two months), whereas the monetary policy in Switzerland seems to be ineffective at influencing the banks' lending rate in the short run. Second, our results show that the banks' lending rate has a negative effect on their loans and that this negative effect is weakened by their growth opportunities. Third, we find that the supply of bank loans plays a more pivotal role in determining firms' investment than the lending rate. Last but not least, we document that neither the lending rate nor the loan-to-assets ratio moderates the sensitivity of the firms' investment to growth opportunities.     

“双支柱”调控的微观稳定效应研究

本文基于中国银行业和企业的数据,对“双支柱”调控的微观稳定效应进行了研究。实证结果表明:一方面,宏观审慎政策能够减弱货币政策的银行风险承担渠道传导效应,有效抑制银行在宽松货币政策下的过度风险承担;另一方面,在宽松货币政策下,企业有提高负债率的激励,而宏观审慎政策能够有效抑制企业过度负债的动机;同时,宏观审慎政策能够降低企业对银行贷款的依赖程度、促进企业优化债务结构,而货币政策与宏观审慎政策的配合强化了这一作用。上述实证结果说明“双支柱”调控政策对银行和企业两个微观层面主体都具有更好的稳定效应。此外,本文的实证分析还发现,“双支柱”调控对银行风险承担和企业负债行为的影响在不同经济周期阶段具有显著的差异性,同时,“双支柱”调控的政策效果在不同性质的银行和企业中也有所不同,这意味着在制定“双支柱”调控政策时需考虑经济周期以及银行和企业异质性,以进一步提高政策的针对性和有效性。本文的相关研究结论丰富了“双支柱”调控在微观层面的传导效应等方面的文献,并为中国实施“双支柱”调控的科学性和有效性提供了一定的经验证据。     

从通货膨胀目标制看货币政策透明度建设

近年来，通货膨胀目标制已成为一种新的货币政策框架，而通货膨胀目标制的显著优点在于能通过增强货币政策的透明度，提高政策的可信度，进而提高货币政策的有效性。提高货币政策的透明度正在成为一种国际趋势。因此．本文通过借鉴实施通货膨胀目标制的西方发达国家的成功经验，探讨我国应如何加强货币政策透明度的建设，提高货币政策有效性。     

“双支柱”调控框架的理论与经验基础

本文从基本事实、基本理论和基本实践等“底层逻辑”出发,系统阐述了“双支柱”调控的现实必要性、理论合理性和实践可行性,并在此基础上明确了中国实施“双支柱”调控框架的现实基础、实践经验和未来完善方向。本文的研究结果表明,随着金融和宏观经济之间关系的日益深化和复杂化,金融稳定对宏观经济的稳定具有重要影响,但传统旨在维护价格稳定的货币政策无法同时有效实现金融稳定,根据“丁伯根法则”和政策比较优势原理,在货币政策的基础上纳入宏观审慎政策,形成“双支柱”调控框架,分别致力于价格稳定和金融稳定的目标,既符合客观现实的调控需要,也具有理论和实践上的合理性和可行性。从目前全球范围内主要国家的“双支柱”调控实践来看,要进一步形成稳定可靠的政策规则和成熟的操作框架,未来还需重点解决“政策目标、政策工具、政策协调”三个核心问题。本文对这些问题的可能解决路径提供了一些初步的思路和建议。     

The Euro Bias of Bank Assets in the Eurozone

Abstract:

The integration of eurozone financial markets since the advent of the euro in 1999 has been the center of attention in policy debates and academic research. We analyze the bank assets of monetary financial institutions in Germany vis-à-vis nonresidents. The financial institutions of the eurozone countries have tended to invest in assets of other eurozone countries substantially more since the introduction of the euro. The euro effect is especially stronger in the weaker eurozone economies than in the stronger eurozone economies. Furthermore, the impact of the euro has been even greater in securities than in loans. In this paper, we use Bundesbank balance-of-payment statistics to analyze the euro’s effects on the asset portfolios of German banks vis-à-vis nonresidents.     

货币政策和宏观审慎政策的关联及启示——基于英格兰银行的经验

时至今日,宏观审慎政策在内涵、工具和框架等方面快速发展,不仅政策目标更加清晰,工具类型更加丰富,相关理论基础也在不断完善。作为危机后形成的新政策框架,宏观审慎政策在工具有效性、作用机制、政策框架设计及与货币政策的关系方面都还有待深入研究。特别是在制度框架中,如何考虑宏观审慎政策与货币政策的关联,合理设计政策决策框架均已成为关键。对中国而言,系统风险识别、监测与分析更加复杂、困难,需要对宏观审慎政策开展更加精细、深入研究,尤其应吸收借鉴国际经验,建立、完善适合中国的宏观审慎政策框架。基于此,本文首先对宏观审慎政策的理论基础、政策目标及工具等进行系统综述,而后从两类政策关联中涉及的三个重要问题出发,着重分析宏观审慎政策与货币政策之间关系,并分别从组织架构设计、货币政策框架改革、金融政策框架设计等方面,系统介绍了英格兰银行在货币政策和宏观审慎政策框架改革的经验,重点阐述英格兰银行如何实现理论发展与制度设计的较好融合。最后,给出我国宏观审慎政策发展的若干启示和政策建议。     

Monetary Policy,Bank Lending,and the Risk‐Pricing Channel

This paper identifies a monetary policy channel through the risk pricing of bank debt in the market for jumbo certificates of deposit (jumbo CDs). Adverse policy shocks increase debt holder perceptions of bank default, increasing the risk premia for some banks, thereby decreasing their external funding of loans. The results show that contractionary policy increases the sensitivity of jumbo‐CD spreads to leverage and asset risk for small banks, and to leverage for large banks. The results also show a distributional and aggregate effect on banking system jumbo CDs and total loans, producing a risk‐pricing (or market discipline) channel. This channel has implications for monetary and regulatory policies, and financial stability.     

货币政策目标规则的研究现状及评述

货币政策规则研究的进展是近年来货币政策研究的重要突破。本文对货币政策目标规则研究领域的代表性文献进行了系统的分类梳理和总结,并展望国际上相关研究的发展方向,作为我们进一步研究的基础和借鉴。借鉴西方货币政策规则的理论和实践,建立适应新形势的货币政策框架是我国货币政策的发展方向。对中国货币政策目标规则的研究尚处于刚刚起步阶段,今后的相关研究应更多地考虑中国作为新兴市场和转轨国家的经济和金融特征。     

Bank behavior and monetary policy

As a rule, economists have studied the interaction between bank behavior and monetary policy in the case of a ‘monetary base’ target. In many countries (among which France), this is not an adequate analysis of monetary policy: rather, the Central Bank pegs the interest rate at a desired level and supplies whatever amount of central money is needed at this rate. This paper presents a model where both the usual and the ‘French’ case can be analysed; both short- and long-run implications of monetary policy are considered in a partial equilibrium framework.     

汇率目标制、货币目标制和通货膨胀目标制的比较及其在我国的应用的探讨

汇率目标制、货币目标制在各自的经济背景下都起到了稳定一国通货、稳定汇率从而稳定一国物价总水平、促进经济增长的作用。起始于20世纪80年代末期,通货膨胀目标制代替汇率目标制、货币目标制成为许多国家追逐长期价格稳定的一种货币政策新框架,在取得长期价格稳定和金融稳定上具有更多优点和灵活性。我国金融开放条件下货币政策调控面临国内货币需求不稳定,内部、外部经济不平衡,金融不平衡等问题,在货币目标制和汇率目标制难以实现货币政策有效调控的情况下,建议应对我国的货币政策调控方式做出调整,采用通货膨胀目标制的货币政策框架。     

消费金融公司、贷款准备金政策与总需求结构调整

消费金融公司的设立将有利于刺激居民消费,拉动内需。但是,在利率非市场化条件下,这也带来新的货币政策调控问题:中央银行如何对消费金融公司调控来实现政策目标。存款准备金政策对不吸收公众存款而发放无抵押担保的信用贷款的消费金融公司将无用武之地,而以贷款准备金政策(对贷款征收法定准备金)为工具的货币政策调控框架将会大展身手。文章构建了贷款准备金政策调控框架并用以分析其对需求结构的调节效应。     

Returns to Scale,Market Power,and the Nature of Price Rigidity in New Keynesian Models with Self‐Fulfilling Expectations

Increasing returns to scale and firms' market power are two potential sources of sunspot expectations in neoclassical models. We show that in New Keynesian models, returns to scale and market power can have fundamentally different implications for broad macroeconomic issues, including self‐fulfilling expectations, depending on the nature of price rigidity. Our findings suggest that the design of stabilization monetary policy can depend on precise knowledge about the economy's real and nominal features. Therefore, a clear understanding of the specific economic environment and its relevance to monetary policymaking for ensuring macroeconomic stability can be an integrated part of monetary policy practice.     

Optimal monetary policy with the cost channel

In the standard new Keynesian framework, an optimizing policy maker does not face a trade-off between stabilizing the inflation rate and stabilizing the gap between actual output and output under flexible prices. An ad hoc, exogenous cost-push shock is typically added to the inflation equation to generate a meaningful policy problem. In this paper, we show that a cost-push shock arises endogenously when a cost channel for monetary policy is introduced into the new Keynesian model. A cost channel is present when firms’ marginal cost depends directly on the nominal rate of interest. Besides providing empirical evidence for a cost channel, we explore its implications for optimal monetary policy. We show that its presence alters the optimal policy problem in important ways. For example, both the output gap and inflation are allowed to fluctuate in response to productivity and demand shocks under optimal monetary policy.     

Financial integration and business cycles in a small open economy

The purpose of this study is to examine a dynamic, stochastic, general equilibrium framework with financial and informational frictions and foreign borrowing in the case of money growth and technology shocks for a small open economy and to analyze the implications of varying degrees of financial integration for aggregate fluctuations and propagation mechanisms in the economy. The existence of informational asymmetries among the agents in the model necessitates financial intermediation in the economy. Moreover, there is uncertainty involved in the production process which leads to collateralized borrowing by firms and, therefore, has to be taken into account in the design of the loan contracts between firms and financial intermediaries. It is shown that increasing financial integration amplifies the effect of a positive, temporary monetary shock on output, consumption, investment, labor demand and loans; whereas it has barely any implication for the impact of a positive, temporary technology shock on the economy.     

Credit rationing and non-price loan terms: A re-examination

This paper develops the implications of heterogeneous bank loans for borrower and lender behaviour in a competitive bank loan market by considering the own funds-loan ratio as the ‘non-price’ loan term. It is shown that in equilibrium each bank will ration its loan to borrowers by providing them with the smaller loan and requiring the higher own funds-loan ration than they would desire at the equilibrium loan rate. Moreover, restrictive monetary policy that raises the opportunity cost of granting loans decreases the loan size and increases the own funds-loan ratio, but its effect on the loan rate and credit rationing remains ambiguous. Thus credit rationing may decrease as a result of restrictive monetary policy.     

Monetary Policy Implementation: Making Better and More Consistent Use of the Federal Reserve's Balance Sheet

Since December 2015, the Federal Reserve has operated a new “floor system” in which it brings about desired changes in its targeted federal funds rate by managing the interest rate it pays on bank reserves and other short‐term liabilities. The design of this new system reflects the tendency of Fed officials to view monetary policy as affecting the economy through Keynesian” interest rate channels. From this Keynesian perspective, policy actions that change the size of the balance sheet are seen as tools for influencing credit market conditions that operate in addition to and independently of the Fed's monetary policy stance. The alternative monetarist framework proposed by the author views monetary policy and its effects as operating through the interaction between money supply and demand. Use of this framework makes clear that, even under a floor system, monetary policy actions designed to affect the aggregate price level and the rate of inflation must be accompanied sooner or later by traditional open market operations that have implications for the size and composition of the Fed's balance sheet. Use of the monetarist framework also underscores the likelihood that the Fed, by paying interest on reserves, has unknowingly contributed to the restrictiveness of its own monetary policies since the financial crisis, a period during which inflation has run consistently below target. More generally, the monetarist framework downplays the importance of the zero lower interest rate bound and suggests that monetary policy could be conducted more effectively by adopting and adhering to a consistent, rule‐like manner during good times and bad.     

Bank loan supply and monetary policy transmission in Germany: An assessment based on matching impulse responses

This paper addresses the credit channel in Germany by using aggregate data. We present a stylized model of the banking firm in which banks decide on their loan supply in the light of expectations about the future course of monetary policy. Applying a VAR model, we estimate the response of bank loans to a monetary policy shock taking account of the reaction of the output level and the loan rate. We estimate our model to evaluate the response of bank loans by matching the theoretical impulse responses with the empirical impulse responses to a monetary policy shock. Evidence in support of the credit channel can be reported.     

总量型和结构型货币政策工具的选择与搭配——基于结构性去杠杆视角下的分析

本文基于我国34类工业行业的年度数据,识别信贷配置偏向特征对结构性杠杆的影响,以及货币政策应对效应的特征事实:信贷偏向的存在导致不同产权性质企业杠杆变化呈现异质性,这种异质性所产生的结构性杠杆现象因经济周期不同阶段而异,传统总量型货币政策工具难以有效解决结构性杠杆问题。为更深入理解这一现象以及结构性去杠杆下货币政策最优选择问题,本文通过构建一个同时包含信贷配置偏向特征、企业杠杆结构变化特征、总量型与结构型货币政策工具影响特征的DSGE模型进行分析,研究结果表明:总量型货币政策数量工具的宽松操作可以有效应对技术冲击下结构性杠杆问题;总量型工具紧缩资金供给,结合结构型工具定向紧缩,是应对成本推动冲击下结构性高杠杆问题的较好选择;当经济面临风险冲击下结构性杠杆和经济下行并存问题时,需要结构型货币政策数量工具和价格工具同时操作,紧缩国企贷款,同时降低民企融资成本。     

Money: Endogeneity and neutrality

This paper examines the implications of a contemporaneously observed endogenous money supply in rational expectations models of the Lucas-Barro variety. First, if there is contemporaneously perceived policy response (e.g., to interest rates), then a simultaneous equations bias produces inconsistency in the neutrality tests proposed by King and Boschen-Grossman. Second, if money acts as a ‘signal’ about economic conditions then autonomous money shocks can have real effects. In polar contrast to the Lucas-Barro analyses, this non-neutrality requires that monetary information be utilized by economic agents.     

货币政策与宏观审慎政策共同支持宏观经济稳定

货币政策是维持宏观经济稳定运行的重要政策工具,但2007—2009年国际金融危机表明,仅仅保持物价水平稳定,忽视金融风险,并不足以维持宏观经济稳定。近年来中国提出双支柱宏观政策框架以支持宏观经济稳定,这一创新具有重要的理论与现实意义。我们首先提出了双支柱宏观调控的框架,强调应该注重两类政策目标的协同与矛盾、政策传导渠道的相互交叉与影响、冲击类型与开放条件的差异等,从而保证双支柱宏观调控对宏观经济的稳定效应。接下来,我们建立了一个DSGE两国模型,作为分析双支柱宏观调控稳定宏观经济的案例研究。研究表明,第一,金融冲击下,货币政策有助于稳定宏观经济,且随着汇率制度从固定转向浮动,货币政策稳定宏观经济的效果会明显加强。第二,在货币政策的基础上,增加以跨境资本流入税为代表的宏观审慎政策工具,可以有效遏制金融市场的顺周期机制,进一步提高宏观经济的稳定性,从而验证了双支柱宏观调控的有效性。第三,双支柱宏观调控的有效性与汇率制度有关,当汇率灵活性水平较低时,双支柱宏观调控对宏观经济的稳定效果更好。