Estimating the recreational value of Pakistan's largest freshwater lake to support sustainable tourism management using a travel cost model

Keenjhar Lake, Pakistan's largest freshwater lake and an important Ramsar site, provides habitat for internationally important water birds. Annually, 385,000 people visit the lake. The lake is threatened by a variety of causes, including industrial and agricultural pollution. To support its sustainable management and conservation, the lake's recreational value is estimated using an individual travel cost model. Randomly selected visitors are interviewed during peak season about their recreational travel behavior and perception of lake conditions. Key issues in travel cost modeling are addressed, including the opportunity cost of time, group travel, substitution and income effects, and endogenous stratification and truncation due to on-site sampling. Poisson and negative binomial regression models produce similar results. We find significant over-dispersion, and therefore, use the more conservative truncated negative binomial model results to estimate consumer surplus. The value of this assessment method for resource managers is illustrated by comparing the consumer surplus with existing pricing and budgeting mechanisms. The annual flow of benefits from lake recreation appears to be almost 50 times higher than the average entrance fee paid by the predominantly higher-income segments visiting the lake, suggesting scope for increasing fees and reallocating government budgets to finance the necessary lake protection measures.     

The lack of an expected relationship between travel cost and contingent value estimates of forest recreation value

Abstract

Using data obtained from visitors to forest campgrounds, travel cost models were developed. Bid functions and willingness‐to‐pay estimates of recreation value were derived from contingent value questions posed to campers. The willingness‐to‐pay responses were based on both photographic representations of forest scenes and on actual forest conditions at each campground. The photo‐based willingness‐to‐pay estimates were significantly correlated with scenic beauty rating estimates made for photo‐based scenes, but there was little correlation between these values and willingness‐to‐pay estimates for actual forest conditions, or estimates from travel cost models. Further, no correlation was found between travel cost estimates and contingent value estimates of the value of forest conditions on‐site. The findings raise questions about the validity and comparability of willingness‐to‐pay measures that are applied to particular types of forest recreation situations.     

A behavioral urban recreation site choice model

Abstract

A multinomial logit site choice model (MNL) derived by utility maximization and based on reported travel distance and perceived site attributes was estimated for 21 forest‐related urban recreation sites in Chicago. Reported travel distance was the dominant explanatory variable. Perceived site attributes included stimulating/educational, quiet, safe, and forested. When estimated for subsets of the 21 sites, the coefficient for travel distance remained stable in sign, magnitude, and significance, while coefficients for “quiet” and “forested” changed in sign and significance. This supports the application of travel cost models at the urban scale, but suggests that site choice criteria may be sensitive to variables not included in the study.     

Visitor Motivational Factors and Level of Satisfaction in Wellness Tourism: Comparison Between First-Time Visitors and Repeat Visitors

This study aims to examine the differences between visitor motivations and satisfaction between first-time visitors and return visitors to a recreation wellness tourist attraction site in South Korea. Data were collected using a questionnaire at a national arboretum and 573 samples were used for analysis. The study discovered that first-time visitor motivations were composed of four factors: “relaxation and rest”, “novelty”, “self-exploration”, and “accessibility”. The return visitor motivations were “sightseeing and experience”, “convenience for touring”, “self-exploration”, and “accessibility”. The desired outcomes motivating the visitation and level of satisfaction were different between first-time and return visitors. The results contribute practical information to managers and marketers not only of the arboretum, but also of wellness tourist attractions to improve strategic visitor management in Korea and beyond. The study strategically applies the arboretum as a competitive resource in a wellness tourism industry with strategic segmentation of visitors.     

Understanding Differences in Nonmarket Valuation by Angler Specialization Level

Using the concept of recreation specialization, we would expect willingness-to-pay (WTP) differences among participant sub-groups as an expression of increasing commitment to their activity. To expand understanding of predictable angler sub-group differences in economic valuation, a two-stage process was used to investigate WTP differences among heterogeneous sub-groups. Cluster analysis was used with a three dimensional specialization model. A zero truncated binomial regression model was applied to estimate anglers' consumer surplus values per trip. Results supported the expectation that anglers in each group placed a different value on the social benefits associated with fishing and their concerns for possible resource loss.     

Voluntary association membership of outdoor recreationists: An exploratory study

Abstract

Research on the political activity of outdoor recreationists has focused primarily on their associational affiliations and concern for the environment. This article reviews literature on theories of collective behavior, recreation motivations, and environmental concern. The study considers outdoor recreation as a social movement and investigates relationships between incentives for voluntary membership in environmental and outdoor recreation associations, motivations for participation in outdoor recreation activities, and environmental concern. Members of associations were found to be significantly different than nonmembers on several variables including value for outdoor recreation, incentives for association membership, intellectual motivations for outdoor recreation, environmental concern, education level, and age. Results suggest that association efforts to obtain instrumental benefits, or public goods that accrue to all of society, are a primary incentive for outdoor recreationists to join voluntary associations. A common thread of intellectual pursuit distinguished members from nonmembers, suggesting that intellectual benefits may help define the relationship between outdoor recreation and associational affiliation behaviors.     

Recreation Specialization and Site Choice Among Vehicle-Based Campers

Recreation specialization theory predicts that individuals will differ in their physical, management, and social setting preferences. Few studies, however, support the hypothesis that individuals choose recreation settings consistent with their level of specialization. This study examined the association between behavioral, cognitive, and affective dimensions of specialization and site choice among vehicle-based campers in Alberta, Canada. Data were collected using on-site interviews and a mail survey. Campers at unmanaged sites (no facilities and services) had higher centrality scores, had greater familiarity with the site and more experience with unmanaged sites, and a higher level of bush skill than campers at managed sites. An ordered multinomial logit model showed that the more familiar individuals were with the site and campground type, the higher the level of bush skill, and the more important and central camping was in an individual's life, the greater the probability of choosing a campground type that required a higher degree of self-reliance and decreased dependence on facilities and services. Higher household income increased the probability of camping at managed sites, suggesting that income might limit the expression of specialization by constraining choice to affordable options.     

An analysis of visitor movement patterns using travel networks in a large marine park, north-western Australia

Good management of tourist destinations can be enhanced by understanding the movement patterns of visitors. Different itinerary types and the concept of distance decay have been explored but there has been little application to within-destination movements or, more broadly, to protected areas. Coastal marine parks offer a challenging location for such research given the connectivity between the water and adjacent land components. The aim of the study was to describe, and quantify, within-destination movement patterns of visitors travelling for recreation throughout Ningaloo Marine Park, in north-western Australia, using various modes of travel. Data were collected using 1208 site-based interviews over a 12-month period. Results revealed visitors were highly dependent on the road network and, once at their accommodation, more than a third did not travel any further to participate in recreation. Conversely, some sites had such a strong attraction that respondents, especially first time and international visitors, travelled long distances for recreation at these sites. These findings contribute to a small, but growing, body of research on within-destination patterns. Such information is essential for protected area planning and to help managers efficiently allocate their often-limited resources.     

Solitude Versus Access: A Study of Tradeoffs in Outdoor Recreation Using Indifference Curve Analysis

Tradeoffs are an inherent part of many of the decisions faced by outdoor recreation visitors and managers. For example, decisions concerning the social carrying capacity of popular attraction sites involve potential tradeoffs between limiting visitor use to ensure a high quality experience and allowing high levels of visitor use to ensure that large numbers of visitors retain access to park and outdoor recreation resources. This study uses indifference curve analysis to evaluate the tradeoffs that visitors prefer to make between solitude and access at Delicate Arch, Arches National Park. Study findings facilitate more informed judgments by Arches National Park managers regarding appropriate recreation opportunities at Delicate Arch. Specifically, this research quantifies the tradeoff preferences of visitors to Delicate Arch and provides a theoretically and empirically informed basis for establishing a social carrying capacity for this site.     

Financial implications of outdoor recreation planning practices: A case study from Virginia

Abstract

A financial analysis of Virginia's outdoor recreation program is presented. The conclusions of the paper may be applicable to many state recreation programs. First, state recreation planning procedures are not realistic; that is, projected requirements for recreational facility development cannot be satisfied within expected budget constraints. Second, increases in user fees and/or increases in general funds allocated to recreation will be necessary to support only modest recreation development for the future.     

Influence of recreation on education aspiration

In the wide context of travel and tourism, recreation plays a significant role in occupying holiday‐maker's agenda, so much so that destination is often sought based on recreation activities it offers. Campus recreation for example, is a major component that influences the young when choosing the destination in which to pursue higher education. However, the truly‐important‐but‐often‐dismissed role of recreation is perhaps its value towards the intellectual development of youth. This special value is perhaps more apparent if we discuss it in the context of adolescents in a campus setting i.e. the students. This study is an attempt to examine the relationship between these two dimensions. Specially, it looked at the link between recreation and academic aspirations and achievement using a specific student population. Aspiration is measured by looking at an individual's attitudes, motivation and expectation with regard to formal education. Findings from the study indicated a strong relationship between intensity of recreation with aspiration. It is found that the more intense the recreation activity, the more positive the individual's aspiration towards in class learning is. However, the same cannot be concluded for relationship between intensity of recreation with academic achievement. This is because the study found that individuals who recreate most intensely do not show good academic achievement. The same scenario is also true for those who recreate least intensely. Individuals who showed the best academic achievement are found to be those who recreation intensity is comparatively moderate. The study provided several recommendations for the planning and provision of recreation activities in institutions of higher learning and emphasized the need for students to recognize the importance of balancing academic and nonacademic pursuit in their time management.     

Virtual reality: Applications and implications for tourism

Virtual reality (VR) offers tourism many useful applications that deserve greater attention from tourism researchers and professionals. As VR technology continues to evolve, the number and significance of such applications undoubtedly will increase. Planning and management, marketing, entertainment, education, accessibility, and heritage preservation are six areas of tourism in which VR may prove particularly valuable. Part of VR's possible utility as a preservation tool derives from its potential to create virtual experiences that tourists may accept as substitutes for real visitation to threatened sites. However, the acceptance of such substitutes will be determined by a tourist's attitudes toward authenticity and his or her motivations and constraints. As VR is further integrated into the tourism sector new questions and challenges clearly will emerge. The sector will benefit from future research into the topics that are discussed and numerous suggestions for future research are presented.     

The importance of urban milieu in predicting recreation participation: The case of day hiking

Abstract

Numerous outdoor recreation forecasting studies have included household characteristics as well as aspects of the recreation facilities and accessibility. Only a few studies, however, have included in the prediction equation any measure of the effects of urban milieu on behavior. Four commonly cited surrogates of urban milieu are used to cluster the cities of Illinois into three relatively homogeneous groups of environments. Regression analyses are then undertaken using individual household data, aspects of the recreation facilities patronized by the households, participation, and distance and travel time estimates. Comparisons of the regression analyses indicate that, as a concept, milieu is an important predictor of both the volume of recreation participation and salient features of recreation facilities.     

Municipal recreation and park standards in the United States: Central cities and suburbs

The nationwide comparative relationship of central city and suburban municipal recreation in the United States has never been assessed before. By focusing on the three traditionally developed standards of recreation and park acreage per capita, the percentage of a municipality's total area devoted to recreation and park uses, and the per capita operating expenditures for recreation and parks, this paper presents such a nationwide comparison of contiguous central cities and suburbs within 76 of the established Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas of the United States in 1965. Results of the study showed the central cities, when compared to the suburbs, to have an overall more favorable skewing of municipal recreation services.     

Assessment of natural resources for nature-based tourism: : the case of the Central Coast Region of Western Australia

Resources for development of a nature-based tourism industry were identified and assessed in the Central Coast Region of Western Australia. The assessment framework developed used both qualitative and quantitative techniques to establish levels of attraction, accessibility, presence of infrastructure and the level of environmental degradation. Data were gathered using a checklist approach to quantify characteristics of sites. Resource assessment was completed using matrices with relevant indicators incorporating weighting techniques. Sixty-five potential nature-based tourism resource sites were identified. The attraction diversity in the Region is high, although the resources were associated with poor accessibility, low levels of tourism infrastructure and moderate levels of environmental degradation. Results from this research were presented to government authorities and incorporated into the planning process. This paper highlights some of the difficulties associated with establishing objective resource evaluation techniques for nature-based tourism, as well as key findings from the research.     

Sample bias in contingent valuation: A comparison of the correction methods

Abstract

This article compares various methods for correcting contingent valuation aggregate benefits when the sample is known to be biased. A sample is defined as the population, and response rates are simulated on the basis of a measure of salience. The simulated response rates suffer from nonresponse bias and selection bias. Coefficient and benefit estimates that result from weighting and self‐selection correction approaches are compared with the true coefficient and benefit estimates. Our results indicate that at both low and high response rates the standard approach leads to bias, and either correction approach will reduce the bias in coefficient and benefit estimates.     

Meeting Planners' Use of the Internet to Plan Group Meetings

Abstract

Despite the fact that hospitality web sites are proliferating and opportunities to complete sales transactions via the Internet increase daily, no research exists on meeting planners' use of the Internet to plan group meetings. Guided by Hoffman and Novak's (1994) Model of Planned Behavior this study focused on determining what variables are related to a meeting planners' intent to use and current use of the Internet to plan group meetings. Three hundred sixty-two planners of the Chicago Chapter of Meeting Professionals International were surveyed via a faxed instrument. Planners' attitudes, beliefs about norms, and perceived behavioral control were found to be significantly related to their usage of the Internet. Additionally, results confirmed that meeting planners view the Internet as having positive qualities and benefits in planning group meetings and that it is a cost effective planning tool.     

The influence of recreation experience and environmental attitude on the environmentally responsible behavior of community-based tourists in Taiwan

This study examines the relationships between recreation experience, environmental attitude, and the general and site-specific environmentally responsible behavior of tourists at Taomi and Smangus in Taiwan. The first is an agriculturally based community and the second home to one of Taiwan's ethnic minorities. A total of 862 usable questionnaires (432 for Taomi and 430 for Smangus) were collected in this study. The empirical results indicate that recreation experience is positively and significantly related to environmental attitudes among tourists. Environmental attitudes are also positively and significantly related to general and site-specific tourist behaviors and mediate the relationship between recreation experience and environmentally responsible behavior. The paper contributes to the literature by examining the structural linear relationships between recreation experience, environmental attitudes, and environmentally responsible behavior. This study suggests that tourism destination providers should provide pro-environmental activities, ecotourism experiences, and interpretations of environmental issues to enhance tourists' environmental attitude and general and site-specific environmentally responsible behavior, thereby potentially reducing the adverse environmental effect produced by tourists during daily life and at tourism destinations. Reducing the adverse environmental effect of tourism destinations will benefit the development of sustainable community-based tourism.     

Economic and social yield of investing in hiking tourism: the case of Berguedà, Spain

ABSTRACT

Nature-based tourism is on the rise around the world. This article employs a cost–benefit analysis methodology to contribute to knowledge in this area by estimating both the economic impacts and the social costs and benefits of investing in hiking tourism. It includes tangible and non-tangible impacts, such as health benefits and CO₂ emissions. Using data collected between March 15 2014 and March 14 2015, results show a positive return from every Euro invested in hiking tourism. A single figure of net returns to society enables policymakers to assess the social value of the investment itself and can help citizens’ rational choice regarding whether to encourage or resist additional tourism development.     

Attitudes toward the use of designated versus non‐designated urban recreation space

Interviews were conducted in Kitchener‐Waterloo, Ontario, at eight different recreation areas. These were classified as either designated or nondesignated recreation areas. The interview was designed to obtain information regarding demographic characteristics of the user, attitudes toward the use of urban recreation areas (both playgrounds and areas that are not designated as recreational in character), reasons for choosing a particular recreation site and what users considered to be part of an ideal recreation area. Information gathered by the interview method was supplemented by a series of observations. Results indicated a significant difference between age and reasons for nonattendance at designated play areas. Differences in use by sex were, however, not significant.