Social differences in leisure behavior: Measurement and interpretation

This article examines how three major dimensions of leisure behavior, i.e., rates of leisure participation, money expenditure for leisure goods and services and discretionary time available for leisure pursuits, are distributed across various socio‐demographic and socio‐occupational groups. The money expenditures for leisure, it is argued, follow traditional class lines most closely; the rates of leisure participation are characterized by a more egalitarian distribution; and the amounts of leisure time are often inversely related to social centrality and social status. The article interprets these varying patterns of leisure inequalities as a function of the cumulative nature of leisure participation as opposed to the “finite” nature of leisure time, and as a reflection of the complex relationship between leisure, work, income, leisure class, and leisure status.     

Leisure styles: A hidden core

Abstract

Factor analysis has been employed in a number of North American and European studies to categorize leisure activities according to participation patterns. The resulting factors have been the basis of proposed labels for leisure styles. Since the results of the factor analyses have been found to vary with the relative heterogeneity of samples and activities studied, comparison of previous findings with a more varied sample and activity list is indicated. With an NORC national sample and participation measured in a diverse list of leisure activities, factor analysis was completed and stepwise multiple regression used to measure the relationship of the resulting factors to age, sex, and social position indices. The factors do not support a neat or clearly differentiated set of activity groupings. Further, a set of activities with high participation rates did not appear in any factors or vary systematically by age, sex, or social position. Support is given to a model that suggests that adult leisure chores begin with a common core of accessible and informal activities.     

Body image as a leisure constraint: Examining the experience of aerobic exercise classes for young women

Abstract

Previous research has shown that women, and especially young women, in this culture experience pressure to be thin. Although considerable research has been directed toward the investigation of body image and its relationship to psychological health and self‐image, the impact of body image on leisure behavior has not been adequately addressed, nor has body image received much attention as a potential leisure constraint. The purpose of this study was to investigate ways in which body image might function as a constraint to young women's participation in aerobic exercise classes. The study used both quantitative and qualitative methods, including a survey of 190 women undergraduate students and in‐depth interviews with a sub‐sample of 11 students. The qualitative data are the main focus of this analysis. The data indicated that body image did not seem to prevent participation or constrain levels of participation in aerobics. Nevertheless, body image concerns were shown to constrain the enjoyment of aerobics as a leisure activity, and this reduction of enjoyment was related to the clothing worn for aerobics and to competition over appearance and body weight among participants. The findings also showed that body image functioned as a constraint into participation in that body‐image‐related concerns were a major motivating factor exerting pressure on young women to participate in aerobics. In sum, the study suggested that body image can constrain leisure in some situations, although it is not a constraint in the traditional sense of preventing participation. The implications of these findings for the conceptualization of leisure constraints were discussed. Furthermore, some practical implications for the provision of aerobics classes were provided.     

Hard-Core Leisure: A Conceptualization

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research reflection is to describe a slice of serious leisure that we call hard-core leisure, which we define as a form of serious leisure that involves extraordinary commitment that is directed toward an “authentic” style of social world activity. Using examples from birdwatching, Civil War reenacting, and climbing, we explain how hard-core participants separate themselves from other participants in terms of what they believe are superior styles of participation and unusual degrees of effort, perseverance, and conduct. Too often, serious participants in any given leisure activity are seen as homogeneous in their attitudes and behavior. The concept of hard-core leisure makes problematic this assumption by bringing to light an extreme form of leisure participation.     

The relationship of early life experiences to later life leisure involvement

Abstract

Data from the 1982–1983 Nationwide Recreation Survey were used to determine whether late life differences in leisure behavior reflect a response to early life patterns or present‐day socioeconomic differences. Individuals aged 65 and over were categorized as either “expanders”; or “contractors”; based on their pattern of leisure involvement. Differences in lifelong learning of leisure activities between these two groups were examined. In addition, a discriminant analysis was done to determine whether present‐day differences on socio‐demographic variables were effective in differentiating between expanders and contractors. Results showed that expanders altered their leisure patterns by the addition of new activities throughout the life span whereas contractors learned most of their outdoor recreation activities before age 21. However, none of the socio‐demographic variables used in this study were effective in differentiating between the expanders and contractors.     

Factors Related to Physically Active Leisure among College Students

The purpose of this study was to provide additional information about the complex relation of social cognitive constructs, gender, and active leisure among university students. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to test the hypothesized relations in a sample of 874 undergraduate students. Peer and family support had a moderate direct effect on self-efficacy while self-efficacy had a large direct effect on active leisure. A moderation effect was demonstrated. Peer support was more influential on male respondents' beliefs that they could be active and males reported higher active leisure participation when compared to females. The results of this study provide valuable insight into the mechanisms of influence on active leisure among this university population.     

Risky recreation: an exploration of factors influencing the likelihood of participation and the effects of experience

The purpose of this research was to systematically examine factors that may influence participation in risky recreational activities. Because more people participate in risky leisure activities, it is important to acquire a more in-depth understanding of the factors influencing their behaviours. We examine these issues in the context of a survey concerned with participation in the sport of mountain biking. Results revealed that experience influenced risk perceptions, expected affective outcomes, and the attractiveness or appeal of the activity. In addition, expected affective outcomes moderated the influence of experience on appeal. The likelihood of participation in a high-risk consumption activity was determined by affective outcome expectancies, appeal of the activity, risk perceptions, and prior experience. The results also indicated that the activity's appeal moderated the influence of perceived risk on the individual's likelihood of participation.     

Leisure and work ethics and locus of control

Abstract

Equivocal findings regarding the relationship between attitudes toward leisure and the extent to which people feel in control of their own fate led to the consideration of possible mediating influences. The current study was an attempt to examine the relationship between locus of control and the affective domain of leisure attitude, or leisure “ethic,” while controlling for the influence of work ethic. The possibility of differences between males and females and students and nonstudents led to four separate subgroup analyses. Results indicated that of the four groups, only female students showed a substantial relationship between locus of control and leisure ethic. In this group, leisure ethic was associated with an external locus of control, the tendency to regard the control of life's circumstances as lying outside oneself. In none of the groups was the influence of work ethic great enough to make an appreciable difference in the relationship between locus of control and leisure ethic. The group differences were discussed in terms of sex‐role orientations and career aspirations.     

Why People Play at Work: A Theoretical Examination of Leisure-at-Work

ABSTRACT

Postmodern perspectives on work and leisure acknowledge the interwoven nature of these domains, an example being the increasing number of organizations intentionally incorporating leisure into the employee experience. Existing research, however, provides no specific theoretical guidance regarding the potential impacts of strategically integrating recreation activities into the work domain. Thus, based on positive organizational scholarship and leisure science theories, we build an individual level model describing the phenomenon of leisure-at-work (LAW). We propose LAW activities have the ability to produce feelings of personal expressiveness at work as moderated by employees' perceptions of the activities. Personal expressiveness then mediates LAW activities' ability to promote the development of organizational commitment, work engagement, and resilience among employees.     

Exploring Relationships Between Physical Activity,Leisure Involvement,Self-Efficacy,and Motivation via Participant Segmentation

Research objectives were both applied and conceptual. Actionable segments of physical activity participants were developed using leisure involvement profiles. Also explored were links between leisure involvement, a construct primarily developed and applied in leisure literature, and psychological variables found to influence participation in physical activity literature. A community-based sample of 384 adults completed measures of five involvement facets and psychological, demographic, and behavioral variables. Cluster analysis revealed four groups: Extremely Involved, Quite Involved, Moderately Involved, and Marginally Involved. Scores for physical activity behavior, self-efficacy, motivations, and body mass index were most positive for the Extremely Involved, with a linear decline across the three remaining segments (p < .05). Few demographic between-group differences were found. The data suggest that leisure involvement provides an effective means of segmenting physically active leisure participants for purposes of research and health promotion, and that self-efficacy and motivation for physical activity were predictably linked to involvement.     

Perspectives on Leisure of LDS Women Who Are Stay-at-Home Mothers

The purpose of this study was to explore the meanings of leisure for women who belonged to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, lived in Utah, and were stay-at-home mothers. Particular attention was given to the religious, cultural, and role-determined forces that shaped their lives and leisure. A phenomenological approach was used. Thirteen women were identified through a criteria-based snowball sampling technique. Emerging theory indicated that cultural beliefs and values can contribute to feelings of entitlement to leisure because of the support for leisure and life roles given by one's faith, family, and community.     

Empowerment,Resistance, and Leisure among Latino Student Organizations

ABSTRACT

The goal of the study was to examine leisure, empowerment, and resistance among members of Latino student organizations. The study examined how the process of empowerment is being achieved and what roles leisure plays in the empowerment process. Focus groups were conducted with 26 representatives of four Latino student organizations on a campus of a large midwestern university. The findings showed that the empowerment was being achieved by helping students adjust to the university life and succeed in college, by strengthening their cultural heritage and teaching others about the Latino culture, and by helping local underprivileged communities. Leisure was used to foster bonds among group members, to showcase groups' cultural heritage, to make activities organized for others more attractive, and as a form of fundraising and attracting new members.     

Role of positive emotions in the constraint process: the case of Taiwanese college students

This study adopts the partial least squares (PLS) method to analyse the relationships among positive emotions, leisure constraints, leisure negotiation strategy, and participation frequency in outdoor recreational activities using stratified proportional sampling of Taiwanese students (N = 569) and SmartPLS 2.0 statistical software to perform statistical analyses. This study determined that positive emotions not only directly affected the level of involvement in outdoor recreational activities but also indirectly increased involvement by improving negotiation ability. While leisure constraints have a direct, positive and significant impact on the leisure negotiation strategy, they do not significantly influence the level of participation in outdoor recreational activities. This article observed that the level of participation did not depend on constraints but instead depended on the process of ‘leisure negotiation’ based on the constraints. In the future, different samples can be used to test the stability and adaptability of this model; alternatively, other variables can be added to better understand college students’ participation in outdoor recreational activities.     

Measurement of Time Involvement in Family Activities: Alternative Scaling Procedures for the Family Leisure Activity Profile

ABSTRACT

This research note describes an alternative scaling procedure for the Family Leisure Activity Profile (FLAP; Zabriskie & McCormick, 2001). The alternative scaling procedure preserves the ratio-level character of responses to FLAP questionnaire items, and it produces an estimate of prevalence of participation with interpretable units of time (hours). In contrast, the traditional FLAP scoring approach produces scores on an arbitrary scale, and these scores can be distorted indicators of involvement in core and balance activities. The increased precision and greater variation produced by the alternative scoring procedure may be a key to more consistent findings regarding family leisure in future studies.     

Leisure and antileisure in game play

Abstract

Leisure is often described as being intrinsically motivated and offering the element of choice. Although games are normally considered recreational or leisure activities, there are certain circumstances in which they take on qualities that are not only nonleisurelike (i.e., lacking in intrinsic motivation and choice) but are actually destructive to the leisure experience. It is suggested that certain aspects of game‐playing situations can destroy the leisurelike qualities of participation and result in abandonment of the activity. These aspects, which include social pressures to participate and conflicts that develop in the social and psychological environment of play, appear to erode intrinsic motivation and perceived freedom of choice.     

Dereifying family leisure: An examination of women's and men's everyday experiences and perceptions of family time

Abstract

The dominant ideologically based view of family leisure as fun for all may obscure the work associated with family activities and the unequal distribution of such work. In this time‐budget and interview study, the time that 46 families spent in family activities was analyzed by examining how much of this time was work and how much was leisure from the parents’ viewpoint. The data show that family activities were often experienced as work or involved a work component. Moreover, the mothers were significantly more likely than the fathers to experience family time (with spouse present) and time with children (with spouse absent) as work and less likely to report these situations to be leisure, x²(3, N = 728) 65.07, p < .01, and x²(3, N = 510) 34.93, p < .01, respectively. Thus, although family activities have some positive benefits and are valued by parents, they do involve work and this work is unequally divided between women and men. The contradictory aspects of family leisure, especially for women, are discussed in terms of the ethic of care as well as the ideology of familism.     

A revised paradigm of leisure choices

A theory‐based model distinguishing three kinds of leisure from required nonwork activity has been examined through research on adult leisure in three communities. In the research sequence, the defining dimension of relative freedom and constraint is found central to the perceptions of respondents, but the work‐relation dimension does not significantly differentiate types of leisure. The model is revised to replace work‐relation with meaning to the participant that is either intrinsic to doing the activity or primarily social. Further, anticipated satisfactions in building and maintaining relationships are found more salient in leisure choices than in meeting role expectations. The revised typology is employed to classify activities from the New Town phase of the research as (1) unconditional, (2) recuperative, (3) relational, and (4) role‐determined.     

Acculturative Stress and Leisure among Chinese International Graduate Students

ABSTRACT

This study explored the roles of leisure participation in helping Chinese international graduate students cope with acculturative stress. In particular, it examined (a) the expectations and preparations with respect to acculturative stress made by the students prior to their arrival to the United States, (b) the acculturative stressors experienced by the students during the postarrival transition phase, (c) the role of leisure participation in coping with acculturative stress, and (d) the limitations of leisure as a coping strategy and the negative impacts of leisure on acculturative stress. Two rounds of semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 first-year Chinese international graduate students attending a large midwestern university. The findings revealed that due to the unique cultural influence and the status of international students, the participants experienced distinctive acculturative stressors. Although leisure participation was an effective tool in combating acculturative stress, in some circumstances it a led to a plethora of negative outcomes.     

Older women’s identity reconstruction in leisure spaces: a case of Guangzhou,China

ABSTRACT

This article analyzes the social interactions and social relations generated by older women in the urban public leisure spaces of Guangzhou, China. The intent is to explore the identity of older women in daily leisure spaces. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and non-participatory observation and then were analysed to explore the relation among identification, leisure spaces, and interaction. The study shows the older women’s need for self-fulfilment and social interaction, as well as the need to fill emptiness are generally unfulfilled because of the alienation of urban life – the citizens share a common sense of loneliness and senselessness. Nevertheless, the inclusiveness, openness, and group honour of urban public spaces offers a good complement to the sense of isolation. In the specific socio-cultural background of Guangzhou, older women reshape or strengthen their identities through multiple factors to achieve a strong sense of belonging in daily leisure spaces.     

The stability of leisure factor structures across time

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the stability of leisure factor structures across seasons. Data were collected regarding subjects’ participation in 58 recreation activities during the fall of 1980 and the summer of 1981. Differences in responses were analyzed on an activity‐by‐activity basis yielding significant differences for 21 of the 58 activities. Further, factor structures for both the fall and summer data were identified. The findings revealed that only three of the seven factors extracted for each structure met the minimum criteria established by the researchers to be considered stable across seasons.