The Racialization of Leisure: Comments on Stodolska's Discrimination Model

Abstract

This cross‐sectional study examines the relationship between barriers to leisure enjoyment and family stages. A list of 18 barriers, which included time, money, knowledge, and attitudinal and motivational constraints was analyzed for two samples of citizens and for one sample of recreation professionals over five family stages, sex of respondent, and four attitudinal measures (internal‐external control, political alienation, community relatedness, optimism). Results indicated varying relationships, depending on the barrier. Findings are discussed in terms of leisure resourcefulness and awareness of respondents (citizens compared to recreation professionals), the need to identify individuals at risk or benefit for particular family stages, and the implication of the findings for identifying target groups and appropriate approaches for leisure service providers.     

The familiarity‐preference component of on‐site recreational experiences

Abstract

Four hundred visitors to a bog environment were surveyed to determine the influence of familiarity on preference response to the visual environment, and to determine the degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter. Influence of familiarity on visitor preference was measured in terms of degree of visitor preference for visual scenes as a result of acquaintance gained through three means of familiarity: on‐site experiences, viewing of photographic materials prior to an on‐site experience, and number of previous visits. Degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter was measured by determining the degree of visitor recognition for scenes experienced during the on‐site encounter. Four findings resulted from the study: preference increased after the on‐site experience; prior photographic information decreased preference after the oil‐site experience; prior visits were associated with increased preference; and considerable familiarity resulted from the on‐site encounter, due to the on‐site experience rather than prior viewing of photographic information.     

Relationships Between Viewing Preference and Outdoor Scenic Components Among Ethnically Diversified Viewers

Abstract

Visual preference is determined by what we see. This study shows the associative strength between visual preference and selected components of outdoor type scenes. Viewers were asked to assess the relative magnitude of what they saw when looking at 35 mm color slides depicting outdoor scenes. Correlation analysis was used to develop the association between the degree of viewer preference and the degree to which each scenic component was perceived. Analyses were also done for viewer groups by gender, age, ethnicity, community type, terrain type, education level, and professional expertise. Factor analysis revealed that twelve of the original eighteen components could be reduced to four, indicating that they are likely to be synonyms and may be measuring the same thing. The memories variable was consistently associated with viewing preference throughout all scenes and viewer types. Color brightness and color variety were also consistently correlated with viewing preference.     

Fate control and leisure attitudes

It has been suggested that attitudes toward leisure may be affected by one's perception of the ability to control life's consequences. Rotter's I‐E scale was used in the present study to measure the perceived locus of control and was correlated with the scales of Neulingers Leisure Attitude Inventory. Results indicated that positive attitudes toward leisure were generally more associated with an external than an internal locus of control, i.e., with the perception that one's fate is to a large degree personally uncontrollable. These results are explained in terms of the confounding influence of work/achievement orientation in the measurement of and in the relationship of those variables. Implications for leisure counseling, leisure education, and therapeutic recreation are also discussed.     

Social differences in leisure behavior: Measurement and interpretation

This article examines how three major dimensions of leisure behavior, i.e., rates of leisure participation, money expenditure for leisure goods and services and discretionary time available for leisure pursuits, are distributed across various socio‐demographic and socio‐occupational groups. The money expenditures for leisure, it is argued, follow traditional class lines most closely; the rates of leisure participation are characterized by a more egalitarian distribution; and the amounts of leisure time are often inversely related to social centrality and social status. The article interprets these varying patterns of leisure inequalities as a function of the cumulative nature of leisure participation as opposed to the “finite” nature of leisure time, and as a reflection of the complex relationship between leisure, work, income, leisure class, and leisure status.     

Leisure and work ethics and locus of control

Abstract

Equivocal findings regarding the relationship between attitudes toward leisure and the extent to which people feel in control of their own fate led to the consideration of possible mediating influences. The current study was an attempt to examine the relationship between locus of control and the affective domain of leisure attitude, or leisure “ethic,” while controlling for the influence of work ethic. The possibility of differences between males and females and students and nonstudents led to four separate subgroup analyses. Results indicated that of the four groups, only female students showed a substantial relationship between locus of control and leisure ethic. In this group, leisure ethic was associated with an external locus of control, the tendency to regard the control of life's circumstances as lying outside oneself. In none of the groups was the influence of work ethic great enough to make an appreciable difference in the relationship between locus of control and leisure ethic. The group differences were discussed in terms of sex‐role orientations and career aspirations.     

A Cross-Cultural/National Study of Canadian,Chinese, and Japanese University Students' Leisure Satisfaction and Subjective Well-Being

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine whether Canadian, Chinese, and Japanese university students' leisure satisfaction affected their subjective well-being (SWB) and, if so, how this process was similar and different cross-culturally/nationally. A series of stepwise multiple regressions indicated that, in general, satisfying leisure significantly and positively impacted SWB across all three cultures, but there were also differences between (a) Canada and both China and Japan in terms of aesthetic leisure satisfaction and (b) China and Japan in terms of psychological and physiological leisure satisfaction. Overall, our results suggest that while satisfying leisure significantly, positively, and substantively impacts SWB in both Western and East Asian cultural contexts, culture frequently influences which specific elements are pertinent. This cross-cultural/national study has important theoretical and practical implications for the currently Western-centric leisure literature and for the understanding of the different roles leisure plays in enhancing SWB across cultures, respectively.     

A revised paradigm of leisure choices

A theory‐based model distinguishing three kinds of leisure from required nonwork activity has been examined through research on adult leisure in three communities. In the research sequence, the defining dimension of relative freedom and constraint is found central to the perceptions of respondents, but the work‐relation dimension does not significantly differentiate types of leisure. The model is revised to replace work‐relation with meaning to the participant that is either intrinsic to doing the activity or primarily social. Further, anticipated satisfactions in building and maintaining relationships are found more salient in leisure choices than in meeting role expectations. The revised typology is employed to classify activities from the New Town phase of the research as (1) unconditional, (2) recuperative, (3) relational, and (4) role‐determined.     

Body image as a leisure constraint: Examining the experience of aerobic exercise classes for young women

Abstract

Previous research has shown that women, and especially young women, in this culture experience pressure to be thin. Although considerable research has been directed toward the investigation of body image and its relationship to psychological health and self‐image, the impact of body image on leisure behavior has not been adequately addressed, nor has body image received much attention as a potential leisure constraint. The purpose of this study was to investigate ways in which body image might function as a constraint to young women's participation in aerobic exercise classes. The study used both quantitative and qualitative methods, including a survey of 190 women undergraduate students and in‐depth interviews with a sub‐sample of 11 students. The qualitative data are the main focus of this analysis. The data indicated that body image did not seem to prevent participation or constrain levels of participation in aerobics. Nevertheless, body image concerns were shown to constrain the enjoyment of aerobics as a leisure activity, and this reduction of enjoyment was related to the clothing worn for aerobics and to competition over appearance and body weight among participants. The findings also showed that body image functioned as a constraint into participation in that body‐image‐related concerns were a major motivating factor exerting pressure on young women to participate in aerobics. In sum, the study suggested that body image can constrain leisure in some situations, although it is not a constraint in the traditional sense of preventing participation. The implications of these findings for the conceptualization of leisure constraints were discussed. Furthermore, some practical implications for the provision of aerobics classes were provided.     

Information search behavior of Hong Kong's inbound travelers‐a comparison of business and leisure travelers

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the information search behavior of Hong Kong's inbound tourists, in particular business and leisure travelers. The study clearly shows that business and leisure travelers demonstrate different information search behavior. ‘Personal experience,’ ‘Travel agency/tour company,’ ‘Airlines’ and the ‘Internet’ are most frequently relied upon by business travelers in searching for travel information, while leisure travelers prefer ‘Travel agency/tour company,’ ‘Friends or relatives,’ ‘Travel guide books,’ and ‘Personal experience.’ The study also reveals that the total number of information sources used and the length of pre‐trip planning lead‐time are significantly different between these two groups of travelers. First time travelers also have a longer pre‐trip planning lead‐time than repeat travelers. Furthermore, business and leisure travelers perceive the levels of influence of several information sources, including ‘Corporate travel departments,’ ‘Friends or relatives,’ ‘Travel guide books,’ and the ‘Internet,’ differently. These information sources were classified into five different dimensions, including ‘Media,’ ‘Neutral,’ ‘Retail,’ ‘Interpersonal,’ and ‘Personal experience.’ Analysis based on travelers' purpose for traveling and demographic information was performed. Leisure travelers perceive the level of influence of ‘Neutral’ sources as significantly higher, and those with lower household incomes perceived the level of influence of ‘Personal experience’ as lower. The results of this study will allow marketers in Hong Kong to better understand travelers’ information search behavior so that they can more effectively tailor their marketing strategies to these two major markets.     

Mexican‐American/Anglo cultural differences as recreation style determinants

Abstract

The fastest growing minority group in the United States is Hispanic, with the majority of this group made up of Mexican‐Americans. Researchers question whether this group forms a distinct subculture in American society and if present recreation facility design provides opportunities for the reinforcement of cultural values.

Mexican‐American and Anglo campers using a minimally developed U.S. Forest Service managed campground in New Mexico were surveyed during the summer of 1985. Significant differences were noted between the groups. In particular, larger party sizes were noted for Mexican‐American campers than for the Anglo groups. Mexican Americans also indicated a preference for nearness to other campers, placed a higher priority on tangible campground design features, and intended to use more highly developed campgrounds and decrease use of dispersed or roadless area campgrounds in the future. Noted differences were believed related more to cultural identity than either socioeconomic or social class variances. There is some evidence to suggest that properly designed recreation facilities may provide the means to perpetuate important cultural traits for subcultural groups in American society.     

Manipulation of dimensionality in landscape preference judgments: A quantitative validation∗

A Paired Comparison Methodology was used to scale preferences for landscapes depicted in 35mm color slides. Several S groups, varying in their familiarity with forestry, evaluated a series of photographically controlled forest scenes with various levels of insect damage. Some Ss were told a priori that insect damage was present (experimental), others were not (control). The objective was to see if experimental Ss would cue on a single “damage dimension” in their preference judgments, thus providing reliable interval measures of their preferences and estimates of esthetic impacts resulting from insect damage. Results of statistical tests indicate that dimensionality can be manipulated and that esthetic impacts can be measured as a result of changes in a specific landscape dimension.     

The relationship of early life experiences to later life leisure involvement

Abstract

Data from the 1982–1983 Nationwide Recreation Survey were used to determine whether late life differences in leisure behavior reflect a response to early life patterns or present‐day socioeconomic differences. Individuals aged 65 and over were categorized as either “expanders”; or “contractors”; based on their pattern of leisure involvement. Differences in lifelong learning of leisure activities between these two groups were examined. In addition, a discriminant analysis was done to determine whether present‐day differences on socio‐demographic variables were effective in differentiating between expanders and contractors. Results showed that expanders altered their leisure patterns by the addition of new activities throughout the life span whereas contractors learned most of their outdoor recreation activities before age 21. However, none of the socio‐demographic variables used in this study were effective in differentiating between the expanders and contractors.     

Family Activity Model: Crossroads of Activity Environment and Family Interactions in Family Leisure

ABSTRACT

This article proposes the Family Activity Model (FAM) that integrates the previous work of Orthner's theoretical constructs of joint and parallel activities with Zabriskie and McCormick's constructs of core and balance experiences. FAM includes two dimensions of family experiences: activity environment and family interaction. Activity environment refers to the degree of novelty in the environment, while family interaction refers to the degree of social interaction among family members. These dimensions include objective and subjective elements of experiences. As a result of these orthogonal dimensions, four categories were developed providing a more nuanced understanding of family experiences: core-joint, core-parallel, balance-joint, and balance-parallel. The broader implications of using the FAM are discussed for researchers and practitioners.     

The lack of an expected relationship between travel cost and contingent value estimates of forest recreation value

Abstract

Using data obtained from visitors to forest campgrounds, travel cost models were developed. Bid functions and willingness‐to‐pay estimates of recreation value were derived from contingent value questions posed to campers. The willingness‐to‐pay responses were based on both photographic representations of forest scenes and on actual forest conditions at each campground. The photo‐based willingness‐to‐pay estimates were significantly correlated with scenic beauty rating estimates made for photo‐based scenes, but there was little correlation between these values and willingness‐to‐pay estimates for actual forest conditions, or estimates from travel cost models. Further, no correlation was found between travel cost estimates and contingent value estimates of the value of forest conditions on‐site. The findings raise questions about the validity and comparability of willingness‐to‐pay measures that are applied to particular types of forest recreation situations.     

Relation between intrinsic motivation and boredom in leisure time

Abstract

The present investigation replicated and extended an earlier finding of the negative relation between intrinsic motivation in leisure behavior and boredom in leisure time (Iso‐Ahola & Weissinger, 1987). Secondary analysis of data from 474 college undergraduates was used to construct a regression model of boredom. Results indicate that the self‐determination component of intrinsic leisure motivation explained the greatest portion of boredom variance (R = .38). Other variables entering the regression equation, in descending order of variance explained: competence, leisure ethic, age, and leisure repertoire (total R² = .52). Gender was not a significant predictor of boredom in leisure time. Results suggest that boredom in leisure time is usefully conceptualized as a disruption of the intrinsic motivation process.     

Leisure co‐participant preferences of the elderly: Age‐homogeneity versus age‐heterogeneity

Abstract

Leisure participation often occurs in the company of others. Therefore, identifying the nature of preferred others is important in understanding antecedent conditions which facilitate the leisure experience. A major characteristic in determining co‐participant preferences of the elderly is the preferred age of others involved in the activity. This study was conducted to determine whether older individuals prefer to interact with age‐peers or with younger individuals when participating in 19 selected leisure activities. Results indicated a preference for age‐heterogeneity in interaction. However, old respondents were more likely to select old co‐participants than were young respondents.     

Alone with others: The paradox of privacy in wilderness

Attitudinal studies of wilderness visitors have indicated that people seek opportunities to limit interaction with other visitors so as to achieve privacy and solitude. This conventional interpretation of wilderness recreation was evaluated by comparing measures of visitor attitudes and social behavior in the backcountry of Yosemite National Park. Results show no association between visitor attitudes toward crowding and observed social interaction or behavior to avoid such social interaction. These findings suggest that subjective responses of visitors measured by questionnaires and interviews are often of debatable validity. Greater validity can be achieved by avoiding reliance on common‐sense interpretations in theory formulation and by employing multiple measurement techniques.     

Conscious versus Nonconscious Mind and Leisure

Abstract

This paper addresses the problem of inferring and measuring touristic attraction for countries as wholes, based on the observed distribution of tourists among a set of destination countries. Embodied in the research is the understanding that even if it is the distinctiveness of countries that allows them to become touristically important, countries are not unique to the extent that a generalized measure of attraction cannot be derived. The phenomenon of tourism is expressed as constituting a system with a peculiar mode of organization in which attraction varies spatially. Interpreting the data on tourist flows in the Western European/U.S.A. system as resulting from individual expressions of choice/preference for the destination visited, a nonmetric scaling algorithm is used to derive an attraction scale. The significance of the scale is then tested against the hypothesis that the directional bias of tourist flows and the spatial variation in attraction are both functions and expressions of socioeconomic center/ periphery differences.