Testing Competing Models of the Leisure Constraint Negotiation Process in a Corporate Employee Recreation Setting

Four models of leisure constraint negotiation (independence, buffer, mitigation, reduction) based on competing views of how constraint, negotiation, and motivation are interconnected and influence participation were tested using regression and structural equation modeling procedures. Full-time employees ( N = 186, X age = 36.7 years, 64.5 percent females) of four companies with similar work site recreation services completed a survey measuring participation in work site physical recreation activities, constraint on participation, negotiation resources, and motivation to participate. Strong support was found for the constraint - effects - mitigation model. Though constraints decreased the level of participation, they also triggered greater use of negotiation resources, which counteracted their negative effects. Stronger health and enjoyment motives also resulted in employees increasing negotiation efforts. The results support several of the constraint negotiation propositions developed by Jackson, Crawford, and Godbey (1993) and a theoretical model that clarifies the role of motivation and distinguishes between the negotiatory and facilitatory functions of negotiation resources.     

Modelling preferences for nature-based recreation activities

This research contributes to a better understanding of visitors’ preferences and behavioural patterns in national parks and protected areas. A conceptual model is proposed to explain why visitors prefer particular nature- or culture-based activities. It integrates three components – outdoor recreation participation, expectancy-value and environmental attitudes. The New Environmental Paradigm is used to capture environmental attitudes, and the motivations for travelling to parks are based on the push and pull motivation factors. Structural equation modelling is used to test the proposed model using data from 401 domestic visitors to Portuguese parks and other protected areas. Results show that nature-based sports are influenced by motivation to do adventurous sports and by social norms; the pro-environmental attitudes, the motivation to enjoy nature and the influence of others affect the interest in interpretation activities; the model’s strongest impact on recreation activities is from culture-related motives.     

Role of positive emotions in the constraint process: the case of Taiwanese college students

This study adopts the partial least squares (PLS) method to analyse the relationships among positive emotions, leisure constraints, leisure negotiation strategy, and participation frequency in outdoor recreational activities using stratified proportional sampling of Taiwanese students (N = 569) and SmartPLS 2.0 statistical software to perform statistical analyses. This study determined that positive emotions not only directly affected the level of involvement in outdoor recreational activities but also indirectly increased involvement by improving negotiation ability. While leisure constraints have a direct, positive and significant impact on the leisure negotiation strategy, they do not significantly influence the level of participation in outdoor recreational activities. This article observed that the level of participation did not depend on constraints but instead depended on the process of ‘leisure negotiation’ based on the constraints. In the future, different samples can be used to test the stability and adaptability of this model; alternatively, other variables can be added to better understand college students’ participation in outdoor recreational activities.     

Bridging the Conceptual Frameworks of Constraints Negotiation and Serious Leisure to Understand Leisure Benefit Realization

Constraints negotiation and serious leisure are two major conceptual frameworks that have developed independently to understand individuals’ leisure participation. Although discrete ideas, they are conceptually similar in light of the fact that they address individuals’ leisure pursuits to attain various desirable benefits. The most important connections between these two frameworks lie in their assertion of different challenges inherent in leisure pursuits together with the need for serious efforts to reach leisure goals. Using a sample of Wisconsin anglers, the goal of this study is to better understand individuals’ benefit realization process by jointly examining the two conceptual frameworks of constraints negotiation and serious leisure. The study results suggest that negotiation strategies or efforts, which are at the center of both perspectives, play a key role in realizing diverse beneficial outcomes and developing unique leisure identities.     

Testing a Structural Model of Psychological Well-Being and Constraints Negotiation in Recreational Sports Participation in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes

The relationships among psychological well-being, constraints, negotiation, and participation were examined using structural equation modeling in patients with type 2 diabetes using a cross-sectional survey approach (N = 283). Despite a direct negative effect of constraints and a positive effect of negotiation on participation in recreational sports, we found no significant effect of constraints on the negotiation efforts of respondents. Instead, psychological well-being played an important role in the process. A higher level of psychological well-being not only directly decreases participation, but also indirectly increases participation by reducing constraints and promoting negotiation efforts. In particular, environmental mastery and personal growth indirectly increase participation by mitigating constraints; personal growth and positive relationships stimulate participation by boosting negotiation efforts and diminishing the discouraging impact of constraints on negotiation. However, a stronger purpose in life decreases both negotiation and participation.     

Testing Alternative Leisure Constraint Negotiation Models: An Extension of Hubbard and Mannell's Study

The purpose of this study was to test a model of the leisure constraint negotiation process proposed by Hubbard and Mannell. A multidimensional measure of physically active leisure was used to extend their findings to a sample of middle-aged and older adults in a metropolitan park setting. Volunteers and visitors (aged 50–87 years) of a Midwestern metropolitan park agency completed a self-administered questionnaire. Results of a two-step structural equation modeling procedure suggested a constraint-negotiation dual channel model. In this model, the negative influence of constraints on participation was almost entirely offset by the positive effect of negotiation strategies. The effect of motivation on participation was fully mediated by negotiation. The implications of these findings for studying constraint negotiation and active leisure in mid- to late-life are discussed.     

Front-Country Campers' Constraints,Negotiation, and Pro-Environment Behavioral Intention: An Extension to the Theory of Planned Behavior

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) has been successfully tested in leisure and outdoor recreation studies over the last few decades. However, the inclusion of new predictors to improve the theory's predictive power has been encouraged. Utilizing leisure constraints approach, we extended the TPB by adding constraints to the theory. The literature also suggested that individuals employ cognitive and behavioural negotiation strategies to overcome their constraints. Therefore, the influence of negotiation through the constraints was also explored in this study. A sample of 1,009 front-country campers was analyzed to test the proposed extension to the TPB. Results of structural equation modeling confirmed a strong, negative indirect association between constraints and intention. Negotiation was positively and indirectly associated with intention. The proposed extension to the TPB was capable of capturing 84% of variation in intention. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Recreationists’ Constraints Negotiation Process for Continual Leisure Engagement

Unlike prospective participants with desire for initial participation, current participants are likely to have different interest in habitual leisure engagement from participation itself. Accordingly, they may respond to the effects of leisure constraints differently in order to progress toward a higher level of leisure involvement. This study aims to construct a theoretical framework that demonstrates how diverse components of current participants’ constraints negotiation process are conceptually connected to each other. Study results suggest that different negotiation strategies help current participants adjust their willingness to participate in the activity more frequently. Results also denote that the three dimensions of leisure constraints are differently associated with cognitive negotiation strategies, and commitment plays an important role in promoting the use of negotiation strategies to mitigate current participants’ perception of leisure constraints.     

Voluntary association membership of outdoor recreationists: An exploratory study

Abstract

Research on the political activity of outdoor recreationists has focused primarily on their associational affiliations and concern for the environment. This article reviews literature on theories of collective behavior, recreation motivations, and environmental concern. The study considers outdoor recreation as a social movement and investigates relationships between incentives for voluntary membership in environmental and outdoor recreation associations, motivations for participation in outdoor recreation activities, and environmental concern. Members of associations were found to be significantly different than nonmembers on several variables including value for outdoor recreation, incentives for association membership, intellectual motivations for outdoor recreation, environmental concern, education level, and age. Results suggest that association efforts to obtain instrumental benefits, or public goods that accrue to all of society, are a primary incentive for outdoor recreationists to join voluntary associations. A common thread of intellectual pursuit distinguished members from nonmembers, suggesting that intellectual benefits may help define the relationship between outdoor recreation and associational affiliation behaviors.     

Modeling Daily Outdoor Recreation Participation and Time-Use as a Two-Stage Choice Process: A Finnish Example

This study examines the determinants of daily participation and time-use in nature-based outdoor recreation among the Finnish population, comparing frequently used modeling methods. Using an original time diary dataset, results show that daily participation decision is mainly influenced by age, dog ownership, potential unemployment and timing of the day (weekend vs. weekday, summer vs. autumn), whereas the main determinants for the daily time-use are age, timing of the day, gender and province. Results indicate that a simple two-part model (probit and OLS) is an appropriate approach for modeling the daily decision process concerning nature-based recreation behavior.     

The role of perceived behavioural control in the constraint-negotiation process: the case of solo travel

This study extends the leisure constraint-effects-mitigation model to the perceived behavioural control (PBC)- constraint-negotiation model by adding PBC. Three competing models were tested to determine which model best fits the data. Results suggested that PBC mediates the relationship between motivation and negotiation, and there is a direct path from motivation to participation. Findings contribute to deepening and broadening the theory of leisure constraint negotiation because the new variable was successfully added to the original model and the model was extended to new settings (i.e. solo travel and non-Western).     

The Influence of Constraints and Self-Efficacies on Participation in Regular Active Recreation

This study examined the ways in which perceived constraints and self-efficacies associated with participation in active recreation influenced Hong Kong and Australian university students' interest, intention, and participation in regular active recreation. The study indicated that perceived constraints have weak negative effects whereas self-efficacies have stronger positive effects on students' interest, intention, and participation in regular active recreation. Time efficacy, persistence efficacy, and activity efficacy emerged as important indirect motivators of active recreation engagement. The influences of constraints and self-efficacies on active recreation participation mainly occurred indirectly through adjustments in participation interest and intention.     

The Constraints Experienced and Negotiation Strategies Attempted by Nonparticipants of a Festival Event

The leisure constraints and negotiation model was used to examine nonparticipation in a large festival event. A purposive sampling survey was conducted with 502 event nonparticipants. The results indicated that the hierarchical leisure constraints model is a useful framework for understanding the constraints to attendance at special events. Consistent with previous research on constraints to participation, structural constraints were the greatest category of constraint, followed by interpersonal and intrapersonal constraints. Further, nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were least likely to attempt negotiations relative to time, partners, or finances. Additionally, this study compared the constraints of nonparticipants who were interested and disinterested in attending the event and found disinterested nonparticipants perceived greater intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints than those interested in attending, suggesting that constraints create amotivation. Disinterested event nonparticipants were also less likely to negotiate constraints to participation, especially barriers related to lack of time and partners with whom to participate. Finally, interested nonparticipants who experienced intrapersonal constraints were less likely to attempt to negotiate constraints. This study broadens the scope of the constraints and negotiation discussion to include the context of a community festival event, as well as differences in constraints and negotiation between interested and disinterested event nonparticipants.     

Smoking as a fashion accessory in the 90s: conspicuous consumption,identity and adolescent women's leisure choices

Just as some species of plants and animals are endangered, some outdoor recreation opportunities are ‘endangered’ in that opportunities to participate in certain activities are becoming scarce and may eventually be permanently lost. The existence of these experiences is threatened by both alterations in the physical environment and by changing social and cultural pressures. The objective of this paper is to propose the application of ecological terms and concepts to develop a conceptual framework for managers and planners dealing with ‘endangered’ outdoor recreation experiences. Potential applications of the lexicon and conceptual approach presented in this paper are: to identify threats to the existence of opportunities for specific recreational experiences, and to provide policy-makers and planners with a systematic approach to setting priorities and developing management strategies to maintain or expand these opportunities. Such an approach may help insure the perpetuation of a diverse array of recreational experiences.     

World Leisure and Recreation Association International Position Statement on Leisure Education and Populations of Special Needs

Outdoor recreation may foster positive environmental views among participants and their nonparticipating household members, but little research has addressed this hypothesis at the household level. We address this gap with a case study evaluating both the individual-and household-level relationship between outdoor recreation and environmental views using the new ecological paradigm scale (NEP). Results suggest NEP relates positively to appreciative outdoor recreation participation and negatively to nonappreciative outdoor recreation participation for participants and their household members. Future research should focus on how household dynamics mediate the relationship between environmental views and outdoor recreation.     

How do people negotiate through their constraints to engage in pro-environmental behavior? A study of front-country campers in Alberta,Canada

This study examined structural models of associations among constraints to pro-environmental nature-based tourism behavior, negotiation through these constraints, motivations to engage in pro-environmental behavior, and knowledge of pro-environmental activities. Three types of constraints (i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural) were investigated to obtain a detailed understanding of barriers to pro-environmental tourism behavior. Structural models were tested using data obtained from front-country campers (n = 1009) in Alberta, Canada. Results showed that constraints negatively and directly influence intention. Negotiation and knowledge positively and directly influenced intention. Motivation and knowledge directly and negatively influenced constraints, and directly and positively influenced negotiation. The mitigating effect of negotiation on the association between constraints and intention was supported by the data. The theoretical and practical implications relating specifically to constraints to engaging in pro-environmental nature-based tourism activities are emphasized.     

Influence of On-Site Choices on Recreation Demand

Eleven conceptual models that illustrate the relationship between ethnicity/race and recreation are examined. From Lindsay and Ogle (1972) to Floyd, Gramman, and Saenz (1993), the reader is taken through the array of theoretical models that have been used to determine recreation participation by ethnic/racial groups in America. A new conceptual model is created that incorporates elements from each of the previous 11 models. This new model is termed the Ethnicity and Public Recreation Participation Model (EPRP Model) © . The EPRP Model is introduced as a viable theoretical framework for studying and measuring the relationship between ethnic/racial factors and recreation participation.     

Testing a Structural Model of Psychological Well-Being,Leisure Negotiation,and Leisure Participation with Taiwanese College Students

A theoretically constructed model combining psychological well-being, negotiation, and participation was tested using structural equation modeling on Taiwanese college students (N = 464). The results provided partial support for the proposed model in that the autonomy and self-acceptance dimensions of psychological well-being had significant positive effects on negotiation strategies. However, contrary to predictions, the personal growth and purpose in life dimensions had significant negative effects on college students’ use of negotiation strategies. Developing a psychological profile of successful negotiation among college students using this framework may aid in predicting who will activate their negotiation efforts, and thus enhance the effectiveness of interventions for health promotion.     

The Participation of Children,Adolescents, and Young Adults in Nature-Based Recreation

This investigation considers the participation of children, adolescents and young adults in nature-based recreation. We draw upon the recreation narratives of forty-seven adult recreationists in the activities of tramping, angling, hunting and mountaineering, obtained from in-depth interviews. In particular, the study considers the transitions from childhood through adolescence to young adulthood, and examines how our participants maintained their participation, or alternatively, disengaged from their activity over this period. The paper provides empirical support for the role of family, and early exposure to nature based recreation in fostering enduring participation. Failing this, the role of school, club and outdoor organizational support and mentoring, right through to tertiary study was highlighted. We also identify a critical role for unstructured outdoor play for young children in nature. The paper discusses challenges for this, and for mentoring, in both formal and informal senses, as pathways into nature-based recreation in an increasingly risk averse society.     

Traveling with pets: Constraints,negotiation, and learned helplessness

Pets have become increasingly important companions for modern families in daily life and during vacations. Yet traveling with pets involves various uncertainties and constraints that can inhibit tourists' participation. Drawing upon the constraint-negotiation model, this two-step, mixed-methods study examines how these constraints may influence pet owners' travel intentions and how such barriers can be overcome. A qualitative investigation was first conducted based on online user-generated content from 71 Chinese bloggers. Thematic analysis informed the development of an extended constraint-negotiation framework featuring learned helplessness. The extended model was then tested using survey data from 615 Chinese pet owners. Findings suggest that while perceived constraints can inhibit traveling with pets through increased learned helplessness, negotiation can reduce helplessness and encourage pet owners’ tourism participation. Implications and limitations are also discussed.