Managing Urban Parks for a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Clientele

A major planning effort for Chicago's largest park provided an opportunity to examine outdoor recreation use patterns and preferences among a racially and ethnically diverse clientele. Results from on-site surveys of 898 park users (217 Black, 210 Latino, 182 Asian, and 289 White) showed that park users shared a core set of interests, preferences, and concerns about the park and its management. But there were also some important differences among and within racial and ethnic groups with respect to park use patterns, participation, and reports of racial discrimination. Implications for management and future research are discussed.     

Testing Competing Models of the Leisure Constraint Negotiation Process in a Corporate Employee Recreation Setting

Four models of leisure constraint negotiation (independence, buffer, mitigation, reduction) based on competing views of how constraint, negotiation, and motivation are interconnected and influence participation were tested using regression and structural equation modeling procedures. Full-time employees ( N = 186, X age = 36.7 years, 64.5 percent females) of four companies with similar work site recreation services completed a survey measuring participation in work site physical recreation activities, constraint on participation, negotiation resources, and motivation to participate. Strong support was found for the constraint - effects - mitigation model. Though constraints decreased the level of participation, they also triggered greater use of negotiation resources, which counteracted their negative effects. Stronger health and enjoyment motives also resulted in employees increasing negotiation efforts. The results support several of the constraint negotiation propositions developed by Jackson, Crawford, and Godbey (1993) and a theoretical model that clarifies the role of motivation and distinguishes between the negotiatory and facilitatory functions of negotiation resources.     

World Leisure and Recreation Association International Position Statement on Leisure Education and Populations of Special Needs

Outdoor recreation may foster positive environmental views among participants and their nonparticipating household members, but little research has addressed this hypothesis at the household level. We address this gap with a case study evaluating both the individual-and household-level relationship between outdoor recreation and environmental views using the new ecological paradigm scale (NEP). Results suggest NEP relates positively to appreciative outdoor recreation participation and negatively to nonappreciative outdoor recreation participation for participants and their household members. Future research should focus on how household dynamics mediate the relationship between environmental views and outdoor recreation.     

A Structural Model of Leisure Constraints Negotiation in Outdoor Recreation

A conceptual model tested the leisure constraints negotiation process of outdoor recreation: motivation and the constraints to participate likely influenced by negotiation efforts. Higher motivation to participate encourages using negotiation strategies and resources to overcome constraints. Experiencing constraints was thought to trigger negotiation efforts. Drawing from social cognitive theory, negotiation-efficacy was proposed to encourage motivation, diminish the perception of constraints and promote negotiation efforts, which indirectly influenced positive participation. The model tested used data collected from a random sample of Arizona residents through hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. Results support the conceptual model and suggest the constraints negotiation process is a dynamic interaction of influences promoting outdoor recreation participation.     

Exploring the formation mechanisms of urban residents’ travel behaviour in China: perceptions of travel benefits and travel constraints

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have examined the perceived benefits (PBs) and percveived constraints (PCs) of travel and/or leisure participation, but it remains somewhat unclear how these perceptions influence travel behaviour. Thus, a conceptual model was constructed aimed at describing the effects of PBs and PCs on urban residents’ travel behaviour. Results from 519 urban residents in Changsha, China, revealed that attitude played a mediating role between perceived travel benefits and travel behaviours (TBs), while attitude-expressive behavior (AEBs) acted as a mediator between attitude and TBs. Additionally, PCs were found to have a direct negative influence on TBs and PBs, and PCs positively influenced TBs through constraint negotiation strategies(CNSs). These findings confirm the mediating effect of CNSs on the relationship between PBs, PCs, and TBs, and indicate that there are several basic patterns underlying urban residents’ TBs. Specific implications for practice and theory are discussed.     

A refined method for estimating recreation benefits

Abstract

Previous methods for estimating the benefits of recreation have neglected interdependence of the consumer's and the producer's surplus. The proposed method is a first attempt to evaluate the benefits of a large number of sites simultaneously, namely 50 recreation sites in Illinois. The method introduces two corrections in the travel cost method in order to account for new dimensions on the consumer and the producer sides. The first correction deals with the provision of recreation opportunities at an efficient level, while the second correction takes into consideration distance to the site (accessibility) and the physical attributes of the site (attraction). Applying linear programming, a new theoretical distribution of attendance is obtained and a new benefit figure calculated. Both benefit figures, the “cost efficiency” correction and accessibility/attraction, are averaged, and a new benefit level is calculated for each site.     

An Exploration of Older Men's Social Lives and Well-Being in the Context of a Coffee Group

Recreation professionals continually strive to serve a host of diverse program constituents, while leisure researchers attempt to uncover barriers to leisure participation. Much of the barriers or constraints research has come from the perspective of program participants. This study identified, from the perspectives and experiences of 18 recreation professionals, the issues and barriers that they perceive inhibit recreation program access and availability to diverse constituents, particularly ethnic minority populations. Co-cultural theory, which integrates the concepts of muted group theory and standpoint theory, was utilized as the study's theoretical framework. In-depth interviews were utilized. Five primary barriers were identified that related to the changing faces of the community, the changing faces of management and staff, deferred program responsibility, language barriers, and negative attitudes and stereotypes held by some management and staff. This article demonstrates how these barriers impact leisure participation for disenfranchised groups. The findings suggest that recreation agencies, often unwittingly or unknowingly, foster organizational barriers that inhibit the perceived program accessibility or attractiveness to ethnic minorities. Implications for research and professional practice are explored.     

Aquatic resources and recreation behavior

While substantial effort has been undertaken to understand the consequences of industrial and agricultural uses for the environment, concern has also been expressed about its other uses, including recreation. Little is known about the relationship between recreational behavior and an environmental resource base. The present paper focuses upon participation in a specific outdoor recreation activity or activity‐cluster and dominant resource base where participation occurs. Resource bases identified were river, lake, ocean, swamp/marsh, forest/mountain, range/ farm and city/town. Emphasis is placed upon aquatic environs and participation in water‐based recreation. Water activities constituted from 14–30 percent of all outdoor activities taking place at those resource bases identified. Aquatic environments provided the resource base for 38 percent of all recreation participation events, water‐ and non‐water based, occurring during one reporting period. While participation in water‐based activities requires a water resource, the array of participation patterns reported suggests that resource bases defined as recreation places provide a wide range of opportunities for non‐resource‐dependent recreation activities. One conclusion is that resource bases cannot be distinguished by the recreation activities occurring on them. Resource bases in fact facilitate a wide range of recreation activities, some holding little direct connection with the resource base, nor are the conditions of the resource sufficient to predict behavioral outcomes.     

Playing While Black

Abstract

In the United States, black youth face unique challenges that shape “where” they recreate, “who” they participate with, and “how” they engage in recreation. Recent events around the country have highlighted the potential of racial profiling in leisure settings. As a result, black youth and parents remain aware of the potential dangers of participating in recreation activities in public spaces. As black youth and their families are forced to navigate these realities, our field is presented with opportunities to explore unanswered questions about the relationship between Race and leisure, especially in the area of youth development. Using multiple contemporary examples to demonstrate the impact of Race on the recreation of black youth, three theoretical frameworks are presented that may help advance the discussion on race, recreation, and youth development. Warning: This article includes videos that contain graphic content and may be upsetting to some.     

Stated preference and choice models applied to recreation research: A review

Abstract

This article discusses the use and usefulness of stated preference and choice models in recreation/leisure research. Stated preference and choice models require one to design decision experiments to study recreational and leisure decisions made in hypothetical or simulated markets. Historically, such experiments were uncommon in recreation and leisure research; therefore we pay particular attention to comparisons of the stated preference modeling approaches with modeling approaches based on observations of choices made in real markets, such as the analysis of discrete choices using conditional and nested multinomial logit models. The conceptual and theoretical bases of stated preference and choice models are discussed; and procedures for developing such models, including different design strategies, are outlined. Potential uses of these models in recreation research are illustrated with reference to several recent empirical applications.     

Place attachment as a mediator of the relationship between nature-based recreation benefits and future visit intentions

This study examined the theoretical relationships between consumers’ perceived benefits, place attachment and future visit intentions (FVI) at nature-based recreation and tourism areas, utilizing importance and performance concepts. The desired benefits and perceived attained benefits of consumers were treated as an antecedent to place attachment and FVI in structural models. Results of two separate structural models tests using responses from 934 visitors at the Ocala National Forest in Florida, USA, confirmed that place attachment fully mediates the relationship between benefits desired and FVI, while place attachment partially mediates the relationship between benefits attained and FVI. The former verifies the significant role of place attachment, and the latter validates the importance of place attachment as well as recreation benefit attainment in predicting visitors’ FVI. These findings suggest that both benefits desired and benefits attained are important predictors of place attachment and behavioral intentions. Accordingly, tourism and recreation planners and managers need to provide visitors with recreation opportunities, which maximize visitors’ ability to attain recreation benefits, such as nature exploration, physical fitness and escape. These managerial initiatives would result in increasing visitors’ emotional attachments and intentions to revisit.     

Ethnicity,Acculturation, Self-Construal,and Motivations for Outdoor Recreation

Research on the leisure of racial and ethnic groups has recently been criticized for a variety of different reasons. In response to some of these concerns, this article examines the motivations of outdoor recreationists who identify themselves as being Chinese ( n = 53); it compares their motivations with those of Euro-North Americans ( n = 180) at the same outdoor setting; and it does so using the construct of self-construal as an intervening variable between ethnicity, acculturation, and motivations for outdoor recreation. According to Markus and Kitayama (1991), individuals with independent self-construals value being unique, expressing themselves, and promoting their own goals, whereas individuals with interdependent self-construals value belonging, fitting in, and promoting others' goals. Furthermore, although people in or from Western Europe and North America are more likely to have independent self-construals, people in or from Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Southern Europe are more likely to hold interdependent self-construals. On the basis of the above, a series of regressions were conducted. Results suggest that (a) ethnicity does affect both types of self-construal; (b) ethnicity does affect four outdoor recreation motivations directly, although this relationship is usually, but not always, mediated by self-construal; (c) ethnicity does affect four other recreation motivations indirectly, either through the interdependent self-construal or through both types of self-construal; and (d) with Chinese respondents, acculturation did affect one recreation motivation directly and, through the independent self-construal, two other motivations indirectly.     

Exploring the Experience of Intergroup Contact and the Value of Recreation Activities in Facilitating Positive Intergroup Interactions of Immigrants

The purpose of this study was to explore life experiences of immigrants and their interactions with members of other ethnic groups. This study also examined the role that recreation activities played in positive intergroup interactions. Using qualitative in-depth interview among Korean women immigrants, three salient themes were identified: (a) a lack of opportunities for intergroup contact, (b) distinct inter-ethnic boundaries, and (c) engagement in recreation activities as a facilitator of positive intergroup contacts. This study showed that participation in recreation activities helped to develop cross-group friendships and ethic and cultural understandings, and reduced life challenges and barriers.     

A Theoretical Model to Measure the Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles in Outdoor Recreation Settings

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess measurement models for the stress/coping process experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Three separate measurement models were evaluated: (1) experience use history and social support, (2) secondary appraisal, and (3) ways of coping scales. This research documents the development of models that can be improved upon by future researchers and promote stress/coping theory building in outdoor recreation research. Social support performed well, and experience use history was reduced to a single dimension measure. The secondary appraisal factor was problematic; the four variables may not be functioning as a unidimensional measure. A model consisting of two, second-order factors and four error covariances was identified for the ways of coping scales. An acceptable fit was achieved for all three models, statistical and theoretical justification is provided for modifications made to the models, and explanations of problems are offered.     

Breaking boundaries and barriers: Future directions in cross‐cultural research

Abstract

The level and degree of understanding of the nature and meaning of leisure in the lives of blacks, native‐Americans, Hispanics, and other ethnic minority populations within the United States is lacking. Most research to date has utilized a social aggregate approach to the study of ethnic/racial differentiation; such research overlooks the dynamics and complexity of ethnicity within poly‐ethnic, pluralistic societies. The objectives of this article are: 1) to present an overview of the types of research which have been conducted among ethnic/racial populations within the U.S., 2) to discuss several ideological and theoretical assumptions which underlie such approaches, and 3) to present several alternative theoretical and methodological approaches which might prove more meaningful in attempts to understand the dynamics of cultural diversity.     

An analysis of the social unit of participation and the perceived psychological outcomes associated with most enjoyable recreation activities

Abstract

Two research questions were addressed by this study: (1) to determine the predominant social units in which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable recreation activities, and (2) to determine if a relationship exists between the social units with which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable activities and the reasons for participating in these activities. Outdoor activities predominated as individuals’ two most enjoyable activities with a marked predominance of participation in the family/friends social group. Two discriminant analyses revealed a strong relationship between social units of participation and reasons for participation. The reasons of family togetherness, relation with nature, being with people, escaping the family, escaping physical pressure, and meeting new people were the primary discriminating variables in pre‐dicting the social unit of participation. However, these reasons were not, in general, viewed as primary reasons for engaging in one's most enjoyable activities. Therefore, it may be concluded that the type and degree of social interaction desired vary with the social unit of participation, but the primary reasons for participation remain relatively stable regardless of the social unit of participation.     

Socio‐demographic variables,recreational resource use,and attitudes toward development in Camrose,Alberta

The paper examines relationships between socio‐demographic variables, recreational behavior, and attitudes toward development of a natural recreational resource among a city‐wide sample of residents of the city of Camrose, Alberta. Three aspects of recreation behavior, namely participation in recreation in general, participation in selected activities, and use of the resource were found to be associated with four socio‐demographic variables. The relationship with age was the strongest and most consistent, but income, education, and family size were also important. None of the aspects of recreation behavior was related to sex and marital status, nor was it possible to use any of the variables as predictors of the frequency of recreational activity. Respondents additionally differed with regard to the perceived importance of future decisions about the resource, and it was found that variations in preferences for future activities and proposals were consistent with these perceptions and with current use patterns. The findings are discussed in terms of their theoretical contribution to research on socio‐demographic variables arid recreation behavior, notably with reference to opportunity theory, and with reference to their role in choosing strategies of recreational management.     

Modelling preferences for nature-based recreation activities

This research contributes to a better understanding of visitors’ preferences and behavioural patterns in national parks and protected areas. A conceptual model is proposed to explain why visitors prefer particular nature- or culture-based activities. It integrates three components – outdoor recreation participation, expectancy-value and environmental attitudes. The New Environmental Paradigm is used to capture environmental attitudes, and the motivations for travelling to parks are based on the push and pull motivation factors. Structural equation modelling is used to test the proposed model using data from 401 domestic visitors to Portuguese parks and other protected areas. Results show that nature-based sports are influenced by motivation to do adventurous sports and by social norms; the pro-environmental attitudes, the motivation to enjoy nature and the influence of others affect the interest in interpretation activities; the model’s strongest impact on recreation activities is from culture-related motives.     

An Application of the Social Psychological Model of Tourism Motivation

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to empirically test Iso-Ahola's (1982) Social Psychological Model of Tourism Motivation (SPMTM). The model is more commonly known as the seeking-escaping theory. Data were collected through a mail survey with 286 respondents and a 31.1% response rate. Factor analysis of the motivation items resulted in a six factor solution. The factors fit into the seeking and escaping dimensions of the SPMTM, thus confirming the model. Motivational factors were compared between Non-Caucasians and Caucasians. Significant differences between the two groups provided support for the subcultural hypothesis, which attributes differences in leisure preferences to differences in norms and values based on racial and ethnic groups.     

The future of travel writing: Interactivity,personal branding and power

Changes in technology and media in the twenty-first-century have had significant implications for the travel writing profession. In the social media era, where information about travel is readily accessible for many audiences online, both travel writers and publishers are altering the way that they function to succeed in this new environment. This phenomenological qualitative study, based on interviews with 47 travel writers, explores their experiences in the digital age. Findings resulted in three new conceptual models illustrating the different experiences of contemporary travel writers: (1) The Interaction Model, (2) The Personal Branding Model, and (3) The Power Model. The models reflect the fact that the online environment has facilitated interactivity with readers and personal branding, created a change in power dynamics, and given some writers a sense of communitas with their peers. These experiences have implications for the profession and the depth of travel writing and writers' travelling experiences.