Barriers to visiting South Africa's national parks in the post-apartheid era: black South African perspectives from Soweto

Almost 80% of South African citizens are of black African origin, yet are significantly underrepresented in numerous leisure activities and especially at national parks: they accounted for only 8.8% of visitors to South African parks’ recreational spaces in 2010/2011. A review of literature on this issue finds a series of research shortcomings. Using a sample of 466 respondents from Soweto (414 self-administered surveys and 52 in-depth interviews), this paper re-examines the significant barriers deterring black South Africans from visiting national parks. Economic impediments to travel were frequently reported but other previously ignored barriers emerged, including lack of paid holidays, leisure “immobilities” fostered under apartheid, transport issues, time constraints, and lack of understanding and knowledge of what to do in national parks. All maintain the perception of parks as unwelcome spaces for many black South Africans. While park management is now largely done by black South Africans, and valuable policy statements now exist, the problems remain. The paper suggests potential actions to reverse the common belief that national parks remain exclusive white South African domains, including deconstructing the parks’ historical relationship with oppression, better promotion, specialised tour development, and work with schools. Links are made to comparable situations elsewhere.     

Visitors to national parks: A test of the elitism argument

It frequently has been assumed that the poor and some minority groups largely lack the financial wherewithal to travel to America's national parks. Data showing an underrepresentation of the poor among visitors at some parks has spurred charges of “elitism” in national park use, and has been an often‐used argument to justify more development (especially the provision of low‐cost facilities) in the national parks. This study tested for relationships between several status characteristics and the national park visitation of residents of the Pacific Coastal Region. As hypothesized, income, education, occupation and a cumulative status measure were all positively related to the frequency of national park going. But the low magnitude of the relationships suggests that the charges of “elitism” in national park going are overdrawn, and that perhaps there has been a substantial democratization of social‐class access to a “national park experience” during this century.     

国家公园生态旅游的本土化路径研究

中国生态旅游资源丰富,生态旅游发展潜力巨大,但实践的泛化造成生态旅游发展陷入困境,生态旅游形象受损。如何利用国家公园建设契机塑造有影响力的生态旅游品牌,是一个亟待研究的课题。在梳理中外生态旅游实践的基础上,本文认为,基于文化观念、生态资源与实践环境等差异,中国国家公园开展生态旅游需立足国情,建议重点从5个方面探索本土化路径：一是明确开展生态旅游的现实目标是生态资源的安全,价值目标是人与自然和谐相处;二是明晰生态旅游的内涵与外延,以此严格界定生态旅游实践内容与形式;三是重点从良性互动的社区参与和科学的自然解说系统两个方面,加强生态旅游科学实践,重塑生态旅游形象;四是利用研学旅行和自然教育等生态产品消费契机,提升公众生态文明素养;五是加强生态旅游制度建设,推动国家公园成为生态旅游和生态文明建设的示范基地。     

适应性管理视角的国外国家公园野生动物保护与游憩利用案例研究

野生动物旅游是国家公园践行公共性和福祉性功能的重要体现,对野生动物保护管理要允许野生动物资源的可持续利用,自然保护与可持续发展并重。适应性管理是国家公园管理的重要方法,可以缓解野生动物保护与游憩利用的矛盾。本研究引入国外适应性管理理论,从管理模式、利益相关者、监测评估、功能分区等方面对非洲克鲁格国家公园、美洲班夫国家公园和澳洲卡卡杜国家公园3个案例地深入分析,得出国家公园野生动物适应性管理的主要经验：（1）建立连接社会的可持续国家公园系统;（2）构建利益相关者协调机制,促进参与和共同管理;（3）建立动态监测评估体系,加强野生动物研究;（4）科学评估生态状况,实行公园动态分区管理。研究结果可为中国国家公园野生动物保护和游憩利用提供参考。     

国家公园科学保护与生态旅游高质量发展——理论思考与创新实践

国家公园科学保护与生态旅游高质量发展是国家公园体制建设面临的重大实践需求和重要科学议题。在阐释国家公园高质量发展特征的基础上,围绕国家公园的生态保护、生态旅游、特许经营、保护模式、解说系统、生态产业、社区参与、管理体制等理论与实践问题进行思考与跨学科对话。分析认为：（1）科研支撑是国家公园科学保护与生态旅游高质量发展的基石;（2）生态旅游是国家公园生态产品价值实现的重要方式,其必要条件是要素支撑体系、特许经营制度和关键政策突破;（3）特许权和特许经营制度是保护机制,从旅游特许经营走向社区特许经营、生物科技特许经营、基础设施特许经营、区域联合特许经营等是未来发展的必然趋势;（4）社区参与是国家公园高质量发展的基础保障,渠道拓展、能力提升、共建共享是提升社区参与质量的重要方式;（5）文化服务是国家公园多元功能的重要组成部分,构建科学的解说系统、建设实体平台和虚拟平台,有利于促进文化服务的供给及其社会文化价值的实现。     

俄罗斯国家公园建设与管理体系及其对中国的启示

本文回顾了俄罗斯国家公园的发展历史,在重点分析俄罗斯国家公园的管理体系和经验的基础上,探讨其对中国国家公园建设与管理的启示意义。研究发现：（1）俄罗斯国家公园的建设与发展和俄罗斯自然保护区的发展历史密切关联,俄罗斯国家公园的建设与管理大致分为5个阶段;（2）俄罗斯国家公园经过近40年的发展,在法律体系、管理战略、空间管制和社区发展等方面积累了较为丰富的实践经验;（3）建议中国借鉴俄罗斯国家公园管理经验,尽快制定《国家公园法》,实施国家公园管理战略,严格空间管控,完善社区协同发展机制等。     

Non-compliance in national parks: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour model with pro-environmental values

Non-compliance at national parks is a major problem around the world. This study focused on visitors' intentions to venture off-trail at the Blue Mountains National Park, Australia (BMNP). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) with the new ecological paradigm of pro-environmental values (NEP) was developed and tested to understand visitors’ off-trail intentions. We surveyed 325 BMNP visitors through convenience sampling. Subjective norm was the strongest predictor followed by attitudes. The role of perceived behavioural control was not significant. The proposed extended TPB model had a marginal relationship between pro-environmental values and intentions using regression analysis. The overall study results suggested that the role of pro-environmental values is more suitable for predicting general environmental worldviews as compared to the TPB being more suitable for predicting specific behavioural intentions.     

Tourism,Marketing and Sustainable Development in the English National Parks: The Role of National Park Authorities

This paper examines the work of the English National Park Authorities (NPAs) in relation to aspects of the development of sustainable tourism. The NPAs have implicitly sought to achieve sustainable tourism development since the parks were first designated, striving to balance the needs of visitors and the environment within the context of living, working landscapes. Studies have revealed, however, that some NPAs are not fully championing sustainable tourism development. The paper examines the NPA's use of marketing and marketing perspectives in encouraging sustainable tourism, exploring attitudes, roles and activities. A diverse, piecemeal and sometimes underinformed approach is revealed. The paper concludes with ways forward for English NPAs and for other protected area management organisations.     

Evaluating the Total Factor Productivity Growth of National Parks in China with Data Enveloped Analysis

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the total factor productivity (TFP) growth of national parks in China. The method of Malmquist Productivity Index based on data enveloped analysis is used. The result shows that 58.33% of national parks in China improved their TFP, and their mean score reached 3.42 in 2001–2005. When the decompositions are considered, 90.28% of them decreased their efficiency and 98.59% of them increased their technology. Correlation analysis indicates that these national parks' TFP is more constrained by their efficiency change than technology change. The correlation coefficients of them with Malmquist Productivity Index (MPI) reach to 0.7834 and 0.9367, respectively. Overall, the authors hold the opinion that most national parks in China increased their TFP during this period, but hindered by their inputs scale for preservation function, the efficiency of them deteriorated but the technology increased, further influencing the TFP. Finally, some methods to improve the performance of national parks for the governments and managers are discussed.     

成本视角的国家公园旅游生态补偿标准测度研究——以黄山国家公园创建区为例

旅游生态补偿标准的测度方法与模型构建是建立旅游生态补偿机制的难点。本文以黄山国家公园创建区为例,基于国家公园旅游生态产品和服务显性和隐性供给成本的视角,综合考虑管理者、经营者、守护者（社区居民）等旅游利益相关者的供给成本和利益诉求,以保障生态系统的完整性、周边社区生存发展权的公平性和行政管理的可行性为原则,划分核心区、毗邻区和辐射区三级旅游生态补偿空间范围,确立国家公园旅游生态补偿标准测度方法与模型,测算得出黄山国家公园旅游生态补偿标准的下限值为5.1亿元/年。研究以期为构建国家公园旅游生态补偿机制,协调国家公园保护与利用的人地关系矛盾,实现国家公园生态共建、利益共享和经济共赢的高质量发展路径提供理论指导。     

成本视角的国家公园旅游生态补偿标准测度研究——以黄山国家公园创建区为例

旅游生态补偿标准的测度方法与模型构建是建立旅游生态补偿机制的难点。本文以黄山国家公园创建区为例,基于国家公园旅游生态产品和服务显性和隐性供给成本的视角,综合考虑管理者、经营者、守护者（社区居民）等旅游利益相关者的供给成本和利益诉求,以保障生态系统的完整性、周边社区生存发展权的公平性和行政管理的可行性为原则,划分核心区、毗邻区和辐射区三级旅游生态补偿空间范围,确立国家公园旅游生态补偿标准测度方法与模型,测算得出黄山国家公园旅游生态补偿标准的下限值为5.1亿元/年。研究以期为构建国家公园旅游生态补偿机制,协调国家公园保护与利用的人地关系矛盾,实现国家公园生态共建、利益共享和经济共赢的高质量发展路径提供理论指导。     

Sustainability perspectives on Oulanka National Park,Finland: mixed methods in tourism research

This paper positions mixed methods as a complement to traditional qualitative and quantitative research. It provides an example of conducting mixed methods research by analysing the sociocultural sustainability of tourism as perceived by local stakeholders nearby Oulanka National Park in north-eastern Finland. Semi-structured interviews were linked concurrently to survey data from the same respondents. First, four discourses were identified based on 40 interviews with respondents about tourism development pertinent to the Protected Area Network (PAN) Parks international certification. Second, the differences between the representatives of the discourses were examined using non-parametric statistics. Results of the qualitative and quantitative analysis supplemented each other. The survey results supported the identification of four discourses and provided information about the representatives using the discourses. The discourse groups differed according to length of residence in the area, distance from the park, gender, employment in tourism, familiarity with PAN Parks, benefit from PAN Parks status, belief in the benefits of PAN Parks, satisfaction with tourism and park development, importance of the environmental dimension and satisfaction with various dimensions of sustainability. The study demonstrates that a better understanding of a problem may be acquired by using a mix of survey methods and interviews.     

Exploring the Motivations,Experiences and Meanings of Camping in National Parks

Camping in natural areas such as national parks is an important social activity and provides a way of reconnecting with nature to achieve personal, social, and health benefits. Experience and meanings are not well understood regarding camping in natural areas, and recent research is limited. The aim of this qualitative study was to examine the motivations, experiences, and higher-order meanings of camping in two national parks in Western Australia, with a particular focus on the last of these. Important associated motivations included the “push” factor of addressing feelings of disconnection from nature, others, and self; and the “pull” factor of experiencing nature. Re-creation, reconnection and reaffirmation were key higher-order meanings. A deeper understanding of the camping experience highlights the importance of the people-natural environment relationship and shows how camping can benefit individuals and society.     

Local discourses and international initiatives: sociocultural sustainability of tourism in Oulanka National Park,Finland

National parks have become important tourist attractions and tools for regional development. New international initiatives, such as PAN (Protected Area Network) Parks in Europe, now promote sustainable tourism in protected areas. This paper examines the sociocultural sustainability of tourism perceived by local stakeholders of Oulanka National Park in northeastern Finland. The central question concerns the role of PAN Parks certification in community and tourism development. Four discourses were identified, based on 40 semi-structured interviews exploring different views on sociocultural development pertaining to tourism in the national park: (1) integrating nature-based tourism and conservation, (2) defending the rights of local people, (3) stressing the economic utilization of nature and (4) accepting tourism development and the national park. Although local stakeholders mostly have a positive perception of tourism in the park, it cannot be concluded whether the park facilitates development in a sustainable manner or not. Key problems identified are lack of participation opportunities and contradictions with traditional subsistence economies. The various positions of stakeholders in these discourses tend to influence their views on sustainability. Findings imply the necessity to monitor the distribution of benefits and burdens of park development holistically to multiple stakeholders.     

西部地区民族旅游开发与民族文化保护

随着西部旅游大开发战略的实施,西部地区以少数民族文化为主要吸引物的民族旅游开发也将进入一个新阶段。民族旅游资源开发给当地少数民族地区带来经济发展的同时,也将不可避免地给当地民族文化带来一系列的负面作用。本文分析了民族旅游开发对民族文化的消极影响,探讨了西部民族旅游开发中民族文化的保护问题。     

Role of destination competitiveness and national corruption in hotel performance: A study of developing economies of Central America

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between destination competitiveness (DC), national corruption and hotel performance (HP). A panel data analysis was applied to the Central American region. The results reveal that corruption has an impact on DC and HP. Such findings are important for the region as many of the countries are battling high levels of corruption while developing tourism industry. In addition, DC was found to have a unidirectional impact on HP. These findings provide a number of theoretical and managerial implications, reinforcing the role of a “shadow” economy and the importance of tourism.     

Visitors' perceptions of the use of cable cars and lifts in Wulingyuan World Heritage Site,China

This paper examines perceptions and attitudes towards the use of cable cars with specific reference to Wulingyuan World Heritage Site in China. A total of 45 respondents were interviewed using open-ended questioning and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis suggests six motives for the use of the lift: (1) tight schedules generated by travel agents and tour operators, (2) lack of physical strength to walk to the summit, (3) group membership influences, (4) the saving of time, (5) lack of information about alternative approaches and (6) novelty of the lift. However, when questioned about sources of satisfaction, respondents tended to refer to other aspects of their visit. This raises questions of managerial significance, as in the past the construction of such lifts and cableways has been based on a premise of enhancing visitors' satisfaction with their visit, and this perceived advantage has been seen as outweighing possible adverse environmental impacts     

Urban region parks and black minorities: Subculture,marginality, and interracial relations in park use in the Detroit metropolitan area

Abstract

This paper compares participation in Detroit city parks and surrounding regional parks by black and white Detroit residents. Black Detroit residents participate more than whites in Detroit city parks, but less than whites in surrounding region parks. The paper explores a variety of explanations for these findings including “marginality”; (economic barriers), subcultural preferences, and interracial relations. Marginality plays some role in explaining underrepresentation by black Detroit residents in regional parks, primarily through restricted access to automobile transport, rather than income effects directly. Subcultural preferences, as measured in this study, do not seem to explain differences in black and white participation. However, measures of sub‐culture were less robust than measures of other factors. Interracial relations factors do seem to play a role in explaining underrepresentation by minorities in regional parks. Implications for research and urban outdoor recreation policy are explored.     

An analysis of the social unit of participation and the perceived psychological outcomes associated with most enjoyable recreation activities

Abstract

Two research questions were addressed by this study: (1) to determine the predominant social units in which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable recreation activities, and (2) to determine if a relationship exists between the social units with which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable activities and the reasons for participating in these activities. Outdoor activities predominated as individuals’ two most enjoyable activities with a marked predominance of participation in the family/friends social group. Two discriminant analyses revealed a strong relationship between social units of participation and reasons for participation. The reasons of family togetherness, relation with nature, being with people, escaping the family, escaping physical pressure, and meeting new people were the primary discriminating variables in pre‐dicting the social unit of participation. However, these reasons were not, in general, viewed as primary reasons for engaging in one's most enjoyable activities. Therefore, it may be concluded that the type and degree of social interaction desired vary with the social unit of participation, but the primary reasons for participation remain relatively stable regardless of the social unit of participation.     

Prospects for Latin America and Caribbean Region in the Global Market for International Tourism: A Projection to the Year 2020

International tourism has become very important to several developing countries as a major source of foreign exchange earnings for their economic development. This article explores the potentials of countries of the Latin America and Caribbean region in the global market for international tourism up to the end of the next decade. This was achieved by analyzing past trends of international tourism in the region, and projecting these trends to the year 2020 using a combination of four different time‐series projection models evaluated by the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). Results show that international tourism arrivals into the Latin America and Caribbean region would increase from 51.21 million in 2004 (end of observed period) to between 87.58 million and 100.03 million by the year 2020. The corresponding figures for international tourism receipts would go from US$34.11 billion in 2004 to between US$64.92 billion and US$75.79 billion by the year 2020. Socioeconomic impacts of these findings are given, and recommendations for marketing strategies, government public policies, and directions for future research are discussed.