An Empirical Study of Corporate Entrepreneurship in Hospitality Companies

This study tests the model of the relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management, developed for the manufacturing industry by Barringer and Bluedorn (1999 Barringer, B. R. and Bluedorn, A. C. 1999. The relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 421–444. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), in the hospitality industry. The findings show some similar and different results from the research of Barringer and Bluedorn (1999 Barringer, B. R. and Bluedorn, A. C. 1999. The relationship between corporate entrepreneurship and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 20: 421–444. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Like manufacturing companies, hospitality companies perceive that corporate entrepreneurship is influenced by four strategic planning practices: environmental scanning intensity, planning flexibility, planning horizon, and locus of planning. Hospitality companies, however, consider that financial controls, not strategic controls, positively influence corporate entrepreneurship intensity. These findings have practical applications for hospitality corporations that are attempting to become more entrepreneurial, and will also help researchers to better understand the relationship of corporate entrepreneurship and strategic planning.     

Going Green in Quick-Service Restaurants: Customer Perceptions and Intentions

As many industries are realizing the ecological, financial, and social benefits to implementing green practices in business, the literature shows that restaurants are slowly following suit (Deveau, 2009 Deveau, D. 2009. Fight the power. Foodservice and Hospitality, 41(11): 47–52.  [Google Scholar]; Dutta, Umashankar, Choi, & Parsa, 2008 Dutta, K., Umashankar, V., Choi, G. and Parsa, H. G. 2008. A comparative study of consumers' green practice orientation in India and the United States: A study from the restaurant industry. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 11(3): 269–285. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]). Increased competition in the marketplace coupled with changing guest demand as well the need to ensure guest satisfaction are some of the driving factors for service organizations to go green. The current study analyzes perceptions of a random sample of quick service restaurant guests in the Midwest regarding the green practices of restaurants in order to determine the impact that these practices may have on satisfaction, the intent to patronize the restaurant, and therefore the bottom line of the businesses. The findings show that although respondents believed that restaurants should utilize green practices, most people were not willing to pay higher prices for those green practices. Another finding is that people who implement green practices at home tend to have the intention to visit green restaurants more often. Increasing knowledge through marketing the green practices should be implemented by restaurants in order to increase awareness of such practices to the general public.     

Harvesting the “Business Test Trip”: Converting Business Travelers to Holidaymakers

A destination has no chance of being chosen unless it is part of a tourist's early consideration set (Crompton & Ankomah, 1993 Crompton, J. and Ankomah, P. 1993. Choice set propositions in destination decisions. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(3): 461–476. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), implying the tourist's awareness of the destination. Raising awareness for a destination is challenging, especially in times of global competition. We investigate a common, yet empirically untested, assumption that business travelers can be converted to holidaymakers at the same destination at a future point in time. Empirical results indicate that business travelers do use business trips to a new destination to assess the potential for future leisure travel. Marketing strategies which destinations could deploy to entice business travelers back as holidaymakers are discussed.     

Investigating the Sustainability of Cruise Tourism: A Case Study of Key West

This qualitative research examines cruise ship tourism through a case study of Key West, Florida, exploring its perceived benefits and drawbacks. It outlines the growth of the industry, the issues raised by that growth, and uses the land-use tourism model developed by Vera Rebollo and Ivars Baidal (2003) Vera Rebollo, J. F. and Ivars Baidal, J. A. 2003. Measuring sustainability in a mass tourist destination: Pressures, perceptions and policy responses in Torrevieja, Spain. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 11: 181–203. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar] to probe those issues. The results illustrate how mature cruise tourism destinations such as Key West fear continued growth and loss of sustainability, but have mixed emotions about future quantitative and qualitative growth.     

Transcending Emotional Community: A Qualitative Examination of Older Adults and Masters' Sports Participation

This qualitative study examined meanings of community as they developed among older adults who participate in Master's sports. Four themes emerged through data analysis that described what a sense of community meant to study participants: a shared sporting interest, comrades in continued activity, relevant life purpose, and giving back. These themes each lend general support to the four elements that constitute McMillan and Chavis' (1986) McMillan, D. W. and Chavis, D. M. 1986. Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14: 6–23. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] sense of community construct. The findings of this study counter the claims that leisure-related experiences of community are largely episodic, emotional and fleeting, and do little to provide sustained experiences of community. This paper concludes with recommendations for further research.     

Culture as a Variable in the Study of Leisure

Leisure researchers increasingly have invoked culture, either implicitly or explicitly, with the claim that it accounts for differences either in leisure behavior or in attitudes, motivations, or other feelings about leisure among putatively different cultural groups. Unfortunately, they have generally been unclear on what they mean by the term “culture.” Instead, they have relied on either presumably universally understood folk definitions or on proxy measures such as nationality, language, ethnicity or race to distinguish among “cultures” and, thereby, to understand how culture allegedly affects leisure.

Unfortunately, serious problems exist with this practice. The concepts of race and ethnicity, for example, are so heavily imbued with political meanings that their worth as scientific constructs is dubious at best (Brubaker, 2004 Brubaker, R. 2004. Ethnicity without groups, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]; Chick et al., 2007 Chick, G., Li, C. L., Zinn, H. C., Absher, J. D. and Graefe, A. R. 2007. Ethnicity as a construct in leisure research: A rejoinder to Gobster. Journal of Leisure Research., 39: 554–556. [Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Moreover, whether they genuinely reflect cultural differences is an empirical issue, not one to be simply assumed. Finally, comparing leisure behavior between two or more allegedly culturally different groups is by itself not evidence that any observed variations are due to culture and not something else. Hence, I have two purposes in this research reflection. First, I urge leisure researchers to determine and then report if they are intentionally using culture as an explanatory variable in their studies and, if so, to define it. Second, I recommend a type of definition because recent advances theory and methods make the culture concept useful as an independent explanatory variable.     

Fostering environmental behaviors through observational learning

Abstract

This study applied and operationalized Bandura’s (1977 Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 1986 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]) four-step observational learning process (i.e., attention, retention, production, and motivation) to investigate how tour-guides, peer ecotourists, and local community members influenced a convenience sample of South Korean ecotourists’ environmentally responsible behavioral (ERB) intentions. Questionnaires were administered immediately after an ecotourism experience (n?=?207). Path analysis results largely supported a hypothesized Ecotourist Observational Learning Model and predicted ecotourists’ ERB intentions moderately well. Production (i.e., opportunities to engage in modeled ERBs) and motivation (i.e., positive reinforcement for engaging in these ERBs) predicted participants’ ERB intentions. Production was predicted by retention (i.e., observation of tour-guides and peer ecotourists’ modeled ERBs), which was, in turn, predicted by attention (i.e., physical, verbal and cognitive engagement). The findings indicate that Bandura’s (1986 Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [Google Scholar]) four-step observational learning process helps explain how ecotourists develop ERB intentions. The implications of the study indicate that tour-guides should model ERBs for participants, encourage participants to model ERBs for each other, provide opportunities for participants to engage in ERBs, and provide them with positive feedback for doing so. Others who seek to understand the processes underlying ecotourists’ ERBs during and after their experiences are encouraged to further test and build on the Ecotourist Observational Learning Model.     

Memberships Levels in U. S. Private Clubs During the 2008–2010 Economic Downturn

This study measured membership changes in private clubs in the United States during the economic downturn from 2008 to 2010. Specifically examined were the changes clubs experienced with their number of members, waiting lists, and attrition rates. A letter was sent via e-mail to the same 1,000 private clubs that were sent a survey in a similar study conducted by Ferreira and Gustafson (2006 Ferreira, R. R. and Gustafson, C. M. 2006. Declining memberships during an economic downturn in U.S. private clubs. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 7(2/3): 3–18. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) The managers of these clubs were members of the Club Managers Association of America. The majority of respondents managed country clubs and member-owned clubs, representing different areas of the United States. An overall response rate of 53% was achieved. Most clubs experienced a decrease in the overall number of members and an increase in annual attrition rate. Fewer clubs reported having a waiting list of members wanting to join. The clubs without waiting lists reported a larger number of membership openings in their clubs. The results of this study suggest the levels of memberships in many private clubs are heavily influenced by economic conditions. An implication from this study is that clubs need to implement membership development strategies during economic downturns because of the decline in the number of members, candidates proposed, and waiting lists during these periods.     

The Impact of Diversity Seeking and Volunteer Orientation on Desire for Alternative Spring Break Programs

ABSTRACT

In this study of volunteer tourism, the values affecting participants' perceptions of and attitudes toward an alternative spring break program are compared to the values affecting their perceptions of and attitudes toward their previous and ideal spring breaks. Results show that the values of fun and rewarding are associated with different preferences that are affected by participants'levels of the individual difference factors Volunteer Orientation (Mowen &; Sujan, 2005 Mowen, J. C. and Sujan, H. 2005. Volunteer behavior: A hierarchical model approach for investigating its trait and functional motive antecedents. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 15(2): 170–182. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Diversity Seeking (Brumbaugh &; Grier, 2009 Brumbaugh, A. M. and Grier, S. A. 2009. Diversity seeking: Scale development and validation [Working paper], Charleston, SC: College of Charleston.  [Google Scholar]). Results suggest that these individual difference factors are fruitful variables for segmentation in the volunteer tourism industry. Implications for marketing programs are discussed.     

From Pragmatist Discussion to Pragmatist Projects in Leisure Research

Although the paradigmatic discussion has encouraged leisure scholars to critically examine their inquiry assumptions (Parry, Johnson, & Stewart, 2013 Parry, D. C., Johnson, C. W., & Stewart, W. (2013). Leisure research for social justice: A response to Henderson. Leisure Sciences, 35, 81–87.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), Henderson (2011 Henderson, K. A. (2011). Post-positivism and the pragmatics of leisure research. Leisure Sciences, 33, 341–346.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Neville (2013 Neville, R. D. (2013). The pragmatics of leisure revisited. Leisure Sciences, 35, 399–404.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) provided critical comments from pragmatist perspectives on the dominance of the paradigmatic framework in the leisure literature. However, it remains unaddressed what it means to adopt pragmatism for leisure researchers who undertake empirical research. The purpose of this article is to offer a starting point to apply pragmatist discussion and pragmatism to empirical leisure research projects. I first describe implications of John Dewey's pragmatism for an empirical inquiry while contrasting them with ontological and epistemological concerns in the paradigmatic schema. Second, I critically reflect upon my previous leisure research project from the Deweyan perspective. I identify several research stages wherein pragmatist leisure scholars should be aware of implications of their inquiry philosophy, including research question formulation, research design and methodological choice, and research outcome report.     

Truth is marching on: the Lasershow Spectacular at the Stone Mountain Park Confederate Memorial and the changing narratives of history

The overarching goal of this paper is to examine the changing historical narratives of the Stone Mountain Park Confederate Memorial as seen through the Lasershow Spectacular, and how this performance speaks to broader issues of race, identity, geography, and memory. The implications of this discourse are especially significant for the identity construction of marginalized collectives. I begin with a brief theoretical explanation of history and cultural memory as socially constructed, including the significance of who gets to create it, its relationship with identity, and the connection between history and cultural memory and popular/consumer culture. Next, I discuss the current state of heritage tourism and how it relates to issues of racial (in)justice. Finally, I turn to Stone Mountain and the Lasershow Spectacular as a case study to examine the social construction of history and cultural memory at a tourist attraction, specifically discussing how the African-American experience is addressed (or not addressed) in Southern heritage tourism. This paper seeks to answer the call in a recent special issue of Tourism Geographies for more work that addresses African-American tourism and the inclusion/exclusion of African-Americans from tourist sites (Alderman, 2013 Alderman, D. H. (2013). Introduction to the special issue: African Americans and tourism. Tourism Geographies, 15(3), 375–379. doi: 10.1080/14616688.2012.762544[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]).     

The legacy of European Capitals of Culture to the “smartness” of cities: The case of Guimarães 2012

The objective of the paper is to examine the extent to which the legacy of European Capitals of Culture (ECOC) increases the “smartness” of cities. A qualitative approach based on semi-structured interviews and desk research was used to assess the impact on the smart city's dimensions hypothesized by Giffinger et al. (2007 Giffinger, R., Fertner, C., Kramar, H., Kalasek, R., Pichler-Milanovic, N., &; Meijers, E. (2007). Smart cities—Ranking of European medium-sized cities (Report). Vienna University of Technology Retrieved November 25, 2015, from http://www.smart-cities.eu/download/smart_cities_final_report.pdf [Google Scholar]). The research revealed that this kind of mega-event reinforces the smartness of the city in which it is hosted in terms of attributes such as living, economy, people and environment. No significant legacy is observed with respect to the mobility dimension.     

To bee or not to bee: whether ‘tis nobler to revere or to revile those six-legged creatures during one’s leisure

By incorporating the concept of speciesism into a multi-disciplinary critical approach to animal–human studies in leisure, I provide an overview of anthropomorphism and entomophobia and suggest how these concepts limit our understanding of human–insect encounters. The concentric circles of leisure illustrate how human–insect encounters in rural and urban areas are often influenced by our senses, spatial cues, socio-cultural forces and our perceived need for safety and comfort. In his study of the pluralistic aspects of environmental values, Norton (2000 Norton, B.G. 2000. Biodiversity and environmental values: In search of a universal earth ethic. Biodiversity and Conservation, 9(8): 1029–1044. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) suggested that we should be cautious in the dichotomy of the opposites and seek to find new approaches that consider the multitude of perspectives, the nuances and inconsistencies that make up human values of nature. Such an approach requires challenging the institutionalised speciesism woven into many aspects of our recreational activities, critiquing the philosophical underpinnings of anthropomorphism and entomophobia, and addressing inter and intra species dynamics throughout various leisure terrains (i.e. indoor/outdoor, urban/rural and local/global) and illustrating how such movements creates interactions that are fluid, complex, unsettling and rewarding. The potential contributions of leisure to this emerging field are outlined in the conclusion.     

The Re‐Branding of Salsa in London’s Dance Clubs: How an Ethnicised Form of Cultural Capital was Institutionalised

Abstract

This paper explores how participants in a popular dance scene renegotiate the aesthetics used to judge the acceptability of dances performed in those spaces. These issues are explored with reference to Bourdieu’s (1977 Bourdieu, P. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge, Cambridge: University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) concepts of social fields and cultural capital and to ethnographic data collected in London’s Salsa clubs. The main argument is that Salsa dancing can function as a form of cultural capital that has with an ethnic dimension. This paper, based on participant observation in London’s clubs and the accounts of 31 of London’s Salsa club dancers, DJs and dance teachers, suggests that London’s Salsa dancers have competed with each other to establish a local de‐ethnicised interpretation of Salsa which refers to the forms of cultural capital to which they have access.     

Satisfying and Delighting the Rural Tourists

ABSTRACT

This study applies the concept of customer delight and the model proposed by Oliver, Rust, and Varki (1997 Oliver, R. L., Rust, R. T. and Varki, S. 1997. Customer delight: Foundations, findings and managerial insight. Journal of Retailing, 73(3): 311–336. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and modified by Finn (2005 Finn, A. 2005. Reassessing the foundations of customer delight. Journal of Service Research, 8(2): 103–116. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to the context of rural tourism. The model is applied to rural tourism lodgings in northern Portugal and validated using PLS technique. The results suggest that satisfaction is a more significant determinant of loyalty than delight and disconfirmation is an important predictor of both satisfaction and delight. This study further supports the conceptualization of customer delight and customer satisfaction as distinct constructs. Results may help managers of rural tourism accommodations to develop and implement more successful relationship marketing strategies.     

The Effects of the Image Differentiated Positioning Strategy on Airlines Consumer Behavior: An Application of the Schema Theory

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to establish and test a model of the image differentiation positioning strategy in the airline industry. This study is based on the schema, which is defined as “a stored framework of cognitive knowledge that represents information about a topic, a concept, or a particular stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among the attributes” (Aggarwal &; McGill, 2007 Aggarwal, P. and McGill, A. L. 2007. Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products. Journal of Consumer Research, 34: 468–479. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], p. 470). The objectives of the study are: (a) to compare the differences between two models (schema plus tag model and subtyping model) of the schematic process; (b) to identify the relationship between the image differentiated positioning strategy and the schematic process; and (c) to assess how the schematic process influences future consumer behavior (attitude and purchasing behavior). Results showed that the airline's image differentiated positioning strategy had a positive effect on future consumer behavior through the schema.     

Tourism Destination Image and Motivations: The Spanish Perspective of Mexico

ABSTRACT

The notion that a tourist has about a certain destination is conditioned by his vision of it, and this behavior is the result of his perceptions (Baloglu &; McCleary, 1999 Baloglu, S. and McCleary, K. W. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4): 868–897. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Goodrich, 1978 Goodrich, J. N. 1978. The relationship between preferences for and perceptions of vacation destinations: Application of a choice model. Journal of Travel Research, 17(2): 8–13. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). The outcome of this information assessment process is currently known as destination image (Milman &; Pizam, 1995 Milman, A. and Pizam, A. 1995. The role of awareness and familiarity with a destination: The central Florida case. Journal of Travel Research, 33(3): 21–27. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). Based on the model of Baloglu and McCleary (1999 Baloglu, S. and McCleary, K. W. 1999. A model of destination image formation. Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4): 868–897. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) we propose a model which explains the process of destination image formation. For testing this model, we have gathered information from residents in Spain, with Mexico as a destination. For this task, a covariance analysis was estimated by maximum likelihood with EQS.     

Resource Investments and Loyalty to Recreational Sport Tourism Event

ABSTRACT

Sport tourism events have a marketing possibility in the Japanese tourism industry. The ultramarathon is a very popular recreational sport event in the world. This type of sport tourism event has shared with completive and enjoyment factors in relation to participant's motivation. Loyalty is a very important factor with attendance to recreational sport events. Generally, as many researchers indicated, that participants' loyalty will lead to repeat attendance or purchase. However, there is no consensus as to how loyalty develops. In the files of recreational sport tourism event research, the process leading to participants' loyalty with a specific event is not evident.

The purpose of this article is to test a conceptual framework of the development of loyalty (Morais et al., 2004 Morais, D. B., Dorsch, M. J. and Backman, S. J. 2004. Can tourism providers buy their customers' loyalty? Examining the influence of customer-provider investments on loyalty. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3): 235–243. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) that is grounded in resource theory. According to the proposed model, when participants and organizers invest specific profiles of resources in each other, the participants tend to develop a bond with the customer and become dedicated to maintaining a stable relationship. The model is used to discuss the mixed results of current loyalty from recreational sport event tourists to organizers and to outline future research efforts.     

Comparing Constraints to Cruising Between Cruisers and Non-Cruisers: A Test of the Constraint-Effects-Mitigation Model

ABSTRACT

This study empirically tested the constraint-effects-mitigation model (Hubbard &; Mannell, 2001 Hubbard, J. and Mannell, R. C. 2001. Testing competing models of the leisure constraint negotiation process in a corporate employee recreation setting. Leisure Sciences, 23: 145–163. [Taylor &; Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) across cruiser and non-cruiser groups to understand constraints to cruising. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were utilized to develop appropriate measurement scales and to test the constraint model. The model was found to have an acceptable fit to the data, which provided evidence for validating the constraint-effects-mitigation model. While the factor structure of the constraint-effects-mitigation model was found to be similar, the mean values of all measurement items and factors and some regression paths were found to be different across the two groups. More specifically, cruisers had fewer constraints to cruising, higher travel motivations and intention, and were more likely to negotiate their constraints to travel. Based on the study results, both theoretical and practical implications were recommended. It is suggested that further investigation is needed to validate the model in other study contexts.     

‘Working Out’ Identity: Distance Runners and the Management of Disrupted Identity

Abstract

This article contributes fresh perspectives to the empirical literature on the sociology of the body, and of leisure and identity, by analysing the impact of long‐term injury on the identities of two amateur but serious middle/long‐distance runners. Employing a symbolic interactionist framework, and utilising data derived from a collaborative autoethnographic project, it explores the role of ‘identity work’ in providing continuity of identity during the liminality of long‐term injury and rehabilitation, which poses a fundamental challenge to athletic identity. Specifically, the analysis applies Snow and Anderson’s (1995 Snow, D. A. and Anderson, L. 1995. “The problem of identity construction among the homeless”. In Symbolic Interaction: An Introduction to Social Psychology, Edited by: Hermann, N. J. and Reynolds, L. T. New York: General Hall.  [Google Scholar]) and Perinbanayagam’s (2000 Perinbanayagam, R. S. 2000. The Presence of Self, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield.  [Google Scholar]) theoretical conceptualisations in order to examine the various forms of identity work undertaken by the injured participants, along the dimensions of materialistic, associative and vocabularic identifications. Such identity work was found to be crucial in sustaining a credible sporting identity in the face of disruption to the running self, and in generating momentum towards the goal of restitution to full running fitness and re‐engagement with a cherished form of leisure.