Response Format Effects in Encounter Norm Questions

Survey response format has been shown to influence norm prevalence (percentage reporting a norm) and the numerical value of the reported norm. This article summarizes an experiment where respondents were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. In the semi-open response format treatment, respondents (n = 817) “wrote in a number” for an acceptable number of visitor encounters. In the closed format treatment, individuals (n = 826) “circled a number” of acceptable encounters along a range of possible responses. Hypothesis 1 predicted that norm prevalence would be higher for the closed format than the semi-open. Hypothesis 2 predicted that the mean tolerance level would differ in the two treatments. Results supported hypothesis 1. The percent reporting a norm was statistically higher in the closed versus the semi-open treatment. Results failed to support hypothesis 2. The average tolerance levels for the closed and semi-open formats were statistically equivalent.     

Factors contributing to perceptions of recreational crowding

Abstract

This paper examines perceptions of crowding in a river recreation setting, using an alternative to the conventional crowding measure and a diverse set of potential predictor variables that have not been examined concurrently in previous studies. Analysis focuses on differences between three groups of respondents: crowded floaters, whose enjoyment was reduced by encounters with other people; neutral floaters; and those floaters whose enjoyment was increased by the visitor density they encountered. Findings support some previous arguments that crowding is related more to visitors’ expectations, preferences, and previous experience than to actual or perceived encounter levels. Further, perceptions of crowding were found to be related to encounter expectations and preferences at specific river locations (e.g., at put‐in and rapids) and to perceptions of other aspects of trip quality.     

Participant crowding and physical contact rates of whale shark tours on Isla Holbox,Mexico

Whale shark tourism is a growing niche market within the marine wildlife tourism sector. Increased visitation and declining whale shark numbers at some tourism sites worldwide raise questions over the long-term sustainability of this industry. This study examines the social and potential biological impacts of “swim-with” whale shark tourism on Isla Holbox, Mexico. A total of 397 tour participants completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding perceived crowding, reported encounters and encounter norms, as well as self-reported physical contact rates with whale sharks. Relatively high physical contact rates suggest that tourism may cause some harm to sharks. Users who encountered more swimmers than their norm felt significantly more crowded and were more likely to perceive the industry as having a negative impact on the sharks and surrounding environment. However, the results suggest that the number of boats in the whale shark viewing area may have a greater influence on crowding than number of swimmers. Management interventions to improve the sustainability of the industry include improved interpretation and guide intervention, achieving higher compliance with existing guidelines, and limiting the number of boats allowed in the whale shark viewing area.     

Use encounter standards and curves for achieved privacy in wilderness

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between wilderness use encounters and degree of privacy achieved at three locations within a wilderness. The theoretical perspective of the research was grounded in environmental psychology, which emphasized the dynamic nature of person and situation fit, rather than the sociology of normative behavior. The study depicted privacy as a dependent measure and argued that privacy is not the opposite of perceived crowding. It also suggested that privacy may be a more appropriate dependent variable for encounter studies than those measures used in past recreation research. Privacy was operationalized as ‘'the level of desired privacy achieved,’’ measured on a 10‐point scale. It was then compared with level of actual, ideal, and maximum use encounters for 600 users of a South Carolina wilderness area. Results indicated that number of actual group encounters was inversely related to degree of desired privacy achieved, in the hypothesized inverse curve pattern anticipated but never proved for satisfaction research. Encounter‐privacy curves for ideal and maximum encounter levels also resulted in predicted patterns. Finally, degree of privacy achieved was negatively affected when ideal and maximum encounters were exceeded by actual encounters, showing a high degree of congruency between theorized and empirical findings.     

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on travelers’ preference for crowded versus non-crowded options

Crowding is a critical determinant of consumers' satisfaction with and preferences for different shopping and travel situations. When considering a selection of travel and hospitality options, travelers are influenced by perceived crowding. This research examined how the current health crisis (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic) affects travelers’ preferences for crowded and non-crowded options. Specifically, we predicted that travelers would have a diminished preference for crowded (vs. non-crowded) travel and hospitality options when the ongoing pandemic is salient. We demonstrated that the primary effect of the salience of the threat was persistent across different travel categories and contexts. We also found that travelers with high levels of sensation seeking and a high need for uniqueness show the opposite pattern, suggesting a possible recovery strategy from the pandemic. Five experimental studies provide several theoretical and managerial implications for travel and hospitality business marketers.     

Response Format Effects in Questions about Norms: Implications for the Reliability and Validity of the Normative Approach

Several studies have demonstrated that altering the format (question wording or presentation format) can alter responses obtained from normative questions. This study extends that research with two experiments. In a study of McKenzie River boaters in Oregon ( n = 225), respondents received either a semiopen (fill in the blank) or closed (scale with anchored points) format of questions about acceptable waiting time at boat launches, percent of time spent in sight of other boaters, and number of groups met per day. In the second study, at Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, 774 respondents received either the semiopen format or one of two closed formats (anchored with 30 or 60), asking for the acceptable number of motorboats and canoes. In both cases, norm prevalence was significantly higher in the closed format (46 to 78%) than in the semiopen format (27 to 60%), and the average increase from one format to the other was 23%. This suggests either that respondents are more likely to guess at a number when given a closed response frame or that the closed format provides important context that elicits valid responses. Examination of the mean values obtained under the different response formats suggest that both processes may be operating, but the latter is more likely. It appears that closed formats, like photographs, offer a cognitively easier and more meaningful task.     

Are neighbour tourists more sensitive to crowding? The impact of distance on the crowding-out effect in tourism

The concept of the crowding-out effect has been employed in the tourism literature to analyse complex phenomena. However, there is limited insight into the crowding-out effect on tourists by tourists, and even less into the impact of distance on the crowding-out of tourists. This paper examines the relationship between crowding perceptions, tourists' attitudes toward crowding and the consequences of being crowded out. Results from a sample of 729 international tourists in Hong Kong suggest that there is a crowding-out effect on tourists by tourists, but this has only a marginal influence on the majority. The limited crowding-out effect is induced by tourists in general rather than by a single segment. The study also investigates the effect of distance on tourist crowding. The findings reveal a decaying effect of distance on tourists’ crowding perceptions, as neighbour tourists are more susceptible to tourist crowding than tourists from long-haul markets.     

Understanding the Role of Identity in the Constraint Negotiation Process

Sociological theory related to identity was adapted to explore the influence of identity on respondents’ perceived leisure constraints and constraint negotiation. We hypothesized that perceived constraints to recreational golf and efforts to negotiate constraints would be predicted by the degree to which respondents embraced their leisure-related identity of “golfer.” It was also hypothesized that the perception of constraints and constraint negotiation would depend upon the degree to which respondents perceive that the identities they embrace facilitate or conflict. Findings showed support for the hypothesized model.     

Internet and Tourism—Part XXIV: PinpointTravel

This study examines the moderating impact of consumers' time styles on their emotional reactions and evaluations of waiting time in crowded and non-crowded environments. A quasi-experimental design was used to test our hypotheses. Our results indicate that waiting in a crowded environment results in negative emotions. In addition, people who scored high on economic time style reported significantly less satisfaction with their choice of airlines when they waited in crowded conditions. These results extend the literature on crowding and waiting time, and add to our understanding of consumer emotions in service environments.     

Perceived crowding in recreation settings: An urban case study

Abstract

Research on crowding in recreation areas has focused primarily on back‐country settings. This study tests some of the axioms developed from this research and from studies conducted in non‐recreation settings using data from a case study in an urban park. The actual number of visitors present was found to be the most important individual predictor of perceived crowding in this setting. Results suggest that more developed parks, in more urban contexts, may elicit different images and expectations about visitor density. The implications of these findings, as they relate both to studies of perceived crowding and the social definition of parks in general, are discussed.     

Skill Level and Recreation Conflict among Skiers and Snowboarders

This paper examines out-group and in-group normative beliefs about unacceptable behaviors (conflict) reported by skiers and snowboarders with varying skill levels. Individuals with greater skills in skiing and snowboarding were predicted to experience more conflict than those with less ability in the activity. Across all skill levels, skiers and snowboarders were hypothesized to report more out-group than in-group conflict. Data were obtained from surveys (n = 595) distributed at five ski resorts in Colorado. Skiers and snowboarders rated their skill level on a four-point scale (beginner, intermediate, advanced, or expert). Multiple item indices were created to measure observed unacceptable behaviors between skiers and snowboarders. Analyses supported both hypotheses. As perceived skill level increased, out-group and in-group conflict increased for both skiers and snowboarders. Within each skill level, skiers reported more unacceptable behaviors by snowboarders than with fellow skiers, and snowboarders also identified more out-group than in-group conflict.     

Examining the Differential Impact of Human Crowding Versus Spatial Crowding on Visitor Satisfaction at a Festival

Human crowding at a festival can affect visitor satisfaction differently to spatial crowding. Festival visitors perceive human crowding as a situation in which the festival is full of people. Spatial crowding, on the other hand, is perceived as restricting movement. We hypothesized that human crowding affects visitor satisfaction in a positive way (by increasing positive affect and decreasing negative affect), whereas spatial crowding affects visitor satisfaction in a negative way (by decreasing positive affect and increasing negative affect). We tested these hypotheses using data collected through an on-site survey at the 2012 Seoul Lantern Festival in South Korea: 423 visitors attending the festival completed the survey. The survey results supported the hypotheses. Managerial implications of the findings are also discussed.     

Service robots or human staff: How social crowding shapes tourist preferences

Service providers in tourism and hospitality are beginning to welcome robots as a customer service option. Given this trend, it is important to explore the factors driving tourists' willingness to adopt such new technology. This study focuses on the role of crowding, an environmental factor widely observed in destinations susceptible to over-tourism, in shaping tourists' willingness to adopt service robots. Based on one survey and two experiments, the present research demonstrates that a destination which is more (vs. less) crowded generally motivates tourists to favor robot-provided services rather than those from human staff. Furthermore, findings reveal that this pattern manifests because more (vs. less) social crowding reduces tourists’ motivation to interact with others, as evidenced by social withdrawal tendency.     

Perceived crowding and festival experience: The moderating effect of visitor-to-visitor interaction

The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of two types of perceived crowding (spatial crowding and human crowding) on festival experience as well as how the interactions among visitors moderate the relationship by introducing the variable ‘visitor-to-visitor interaction’. To this end, taking Chinese local cultural festivals as the research object, empirical tests with regression analysis are conducted on 555 questionnaires concerning people's festival experience and perception of spatial crowding and human crowding. The results reveal an inverted U-shaped relationship between perceived human crowding and festival experience, whereas perceived spatial crowding consistently negatively affects the festival experience. Furthermore, the moderating effect of interactions among visitors is confirmed: the quality of interaction has different moderating effects on the relationship between different types of crowding perception and festival experience, and the quantity of interaction positively moderates the relationship between perceived spatial crowding and festival experience.     

Business Traveler Satisfaction with Hotel Service Encounters

Abstract

This study examines customer satisfaction with a series of hotel services. Five service encounters were examined in a sample of business travelers (n = 140) who had stayed in Hong Kong hotels. Overall satisfaction and repurchase intention were differentially impacted by the various service encounters. Business center encounters had the greatest effect on business traveler satisfaction, followed by check-out and check-in encounters. Interestingly, room and restaurant encounters had the least impact on satisfaction. The delivery of good core services alone cannot guarantee customer satisfaction. Hotels must also pay attention to peripheral service delivery, because these encounters help to shape the customer's overall level of satisfaction and repurchase intention.     

Continuing the Discussion on Coping as a Conceptualization for Constraint Negotiation and Accommodation: Responses to Little,Samdahl, and Walker

Abstract

The relationship between perceived crowding and the desire to further limit established carrying capacities is examined from a study of users of the Sylvania Recreation Area. The relationship is found to be weak, especially among those users with low education. Possible explanations in terms of expressed crowding as a status group convention are discussed. It is concluded that user limitation decisions cannot be directly derived from studies of perceived crowding.     

Word-of-mouth,buying, and sacrifice intentions for eco-cruises: Exploring the function of norm activation and value-attitude-behavior

Our theoretical framework was designed to explain passengers' decision-making process for environmentally responsible cruise products. Specifically, the goals of this study were to investigate passengers' decision formation by employing the Norm Activation Model (NAM), to extend it by integrating the value-attitude-behavior cognitive hierarchy, emotional process, and normative procedure, and to test the moderating impact of non-green alternatives' attractiveness in a cruise context. The measurement quality was found to be adequate. The prediction power of the proposed framework was superior to the original NAM. Findings from the structural model revealed that the hypothesized associations relating study variables within our proposed theoretical framework were generally supported; personal norm acted as significant mediators; and the role of personal norm and social norm in building intentions was salient. Additionally, the hypothesized moderating impact of alternatives' attractiveness in determining intentions was supported.     

Rounding up for a cause: The joint effect of donation type and crowding on donation likelihood

Prior research demonstrates that consumers are more likely to donate when asked to round up their total bill to the next whole dollar (vs. donate a flat-dollar amount). However, there is scant research demonstrating boundary conditions for the effectiveness of round-up donations. The purpose of this study is to fill this knowledge gap by suggesting crowding level of a service establishment as a boundary condition. Study 1 demonstrates that round-up (vs. flat-dollar) donations decrease perceived pain of donation, thereby increasing donation likelihood. Study 2 shows that round-up (vs. flat-dollar) donations decrease pain of donation in a crowded environment. Conversely, such differences in pain of donation are not observed in a non-crowded environment. The present study contributes to the nascent literature on round-up donations and provides insight to cause-related marketing managers concerning how to design donation messages.     

How Visitor and Environmental Characteristics Influence Perceived Crowding

This paper aims to investigate tourists’ perceptions of crowding and factors influencing those perceptions. The effects of visitor socio-demographic characteristics, economic factors, and destination situational characteristics are investigated. Questionnaire data were collected from a sample of 362 tourists at Pantai Cenang Beach, Langkawi Island. The results confirmed the significant effect of visitor socio-demographic characteristics on perceived crowding. Among the economic factors, although the findings did not confirm an effect for level of income, the results showed a positive effect for spending money per day on perceived crowding. Furthermore, the hypothesized effect of situational characteristics on perceived crowding could not be verified. In light of the absence of studies investigating the factors influencing perceived crowding using partial least squares–structural equation modeling, this study contributes theoretically and methodologically to the perceived crowding literature. Moreover, the results can assist the local authorities to understand the perceptions of tourists for future development.     

Testing the sufficiency of the theory of planned behavior: a case of customer dissatisfaction responses in restaurants

This study tested the sufficiency of both the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the extended TPB models by adding the variable of past behavior. In addition, the present study examined the mediating role of the TPB variables on the relationships between past behavior and customers’ intentions to engage in different types of dissatisfaction responses (i.e., voice, negative word-of-mouth communication, and exit). Results of the study demonstrated the strong predictive power of the original TPB mode but the inclusion of past behavior did not significantly improve the predictability of the three dissatisfaction response intentions. Furthermore, the mediating analyses indicated that the influence of past behavior was mediated by TPB variables. In the contexts of negative word-of-mouth communication, the effect of past behavior on intention was mediated by attitude. Meanwhile, both subjective norm and perceived behavioral control mediated the relationship between past behavior and the intention to engage in voice behavior.