Hard-Core Leisure: A Conceptualization

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research reflection is to describe a slice of serious leisure that we call hard-core leisure, which we define as a form of serious leisure that involves extraordinary commitment that is directed toward an “authentic” style of social world activity. Using examples from birdwatching, Civil War reenacting, and climbing, we explain how hard-core participants separate themselves from other participants in terms of what they believe are superior styles of participation and unusual degrees of effort, perseverance, and conduct. Too often, serious participants in any given leisure activity are seen as homogeneous in their attitudes and behavior. The concept of hard-core leisure makes problematic this assumption by bringing to light an extreme form of leisure participation.     

Gangs and Deviant Leisure

The objectives of this study, guided by the principles of the social learning theory, were to explore the participation and motivations of gang members for involvement in deviant leisure activities. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with 30 former gang members residing in Chicago and central Illinois. The findings showed that their leisure behavior included house parties that typically included the use of drugs, alcohol, and sex; “hanging around” on street corners and “gangbanging” violence perpetrated against members of opposing gangs or other members of the same gang; and various types of vandalism. Motivations for involvement in deviant leisure included those outlined in the social learning theory, as well as thrill and pleasure from committing crimes and achieving flow-like states. The research confirmed that both individual factors and social processes contributed to explaining gang members' involvement in deviant pastimes.     

Weekly Fluctuations in College Student Leisure Activities and Well-Being

College students’ well-being is declining. Differences in students’ leisure activity participation have been linked to their psychological well-being. This study examined how weekly fluctuations in leisure allocation (i.e., frequency of volunteer, cognitive, social, club, religious, and physical activities) related to well-being in college students. Students completed weekly leisure time allocation assessments. Generalized linear multilevel analyses showed that time allocation and well-being varied within-people. Fluctuations in leisure time allocation were related to fluctuations in well-being. Findings extend understanding of leisure and well-being by highlighting the unique contributions of within-person fluctuations beyond between-person differences.     

Leisure Spaces,Community, and Third Places

ABSTRACT

After decades of highlighting the decline of social networks, leisure spaces as third places constitute a welcomed approach to mediate this loss. Third places are defined as public gathering places that ultimately contribute to the strength of community. We appreciate the concept and believe that it has and will continue to influence scholars in the field of leisure. For this reason, this research reflection argues Oldenburg's conceptualization of third places requires reconsideration. Specifically, we address the increasing prevalence of technology and question Oldenburg's claim that technology contributes to the isolation of individuals. We also encourage a more complex understanding of third places—one that is beyond the idealized notion of public places. Oldenburg's social dimensions of third places (enjoyment, regularity, pure sociability/social leveler, and diversity) are offered as a useful framework. More specifically, we argue that diversity is the most relevant characteristic when exploring third places as a platform for community.     

Longitudinal Leisure Activity Profiles and Their Associations with Recovery Experiences and Job Performance

We aimed to identify longitudinal leisure activity profiles among working adults and their links to recovery experiences and job performance. Leisure activities, recovery experiences, and job performance were investigated among 831 employees using survey data collected in spring 2013 (T1) and 2014 (T2). Through latent profile analysis (LPA), four stable longitudinal leisure activity profiles were identified. “Social Sports(wo)men” (46%) engaged in physical and social activities but rarely in creative or cultural activities. “Active Artists” (23%) pursued all leisure activities, particularly creative activities. “Socially & Culturally Inactives” (17%) exercised frequently but seldom engaged in social, cultural or creative activities. “Inactive Soloists” (14%) spent little time on physical activities. “Active Artists” reported most beneficial recovery experiences and job performance. Our results corroborate the importance of leisure activities (particularly diverse and creative activities) in facilitating recovery from work stress and job performance.     

Leisure,gender and family: the influence of social policy

A number of authors have recently called for reconsideration of the way in which gender and the family are investigated within leisure studies. This paper proposes that future analyses should include more explicit recognition of the ideological and practical influence of social policy on contemporary gender relations. The paper suggests that social policy has particular significance for debates within leisure studies, about the relationship between men and women's market and domestic labour, and their access to leisure. The paper investigates the influence of social policy on male and female adult life patterns through comparative analysis of social policy interventions and labour market outcomes in the economically advanced nations. It focusses on the policy stance in relation to paid work, especially maternal and paternal employment. It is shown that ‘family-related’ social policies universally support fathers' employment, but vary in the extent to which they encourage mothers' labour market activity. The implications of this for gender differentiation in leisure are explored through analysis of cross-national data for male and female sports participation in Europe. The analysis shows a strong correlation between gender discrimination in family-related social policy, and differentials in male-female sports participation rates. The paper next considers the implications of policy intervention for divergence within the female population. A detailed case study of the UK examines how family-related policy may differentially affect women in different socio-economic situations. The paper concludes that whether family-related policies encourage women to see themselves primarily as caregivers within the family unit, or as citizens with individualized rights, is likely to affect both their sense of entitlement to personal leisure and their ability to access it.     

Social differences in leisure behavior: Measurement and interpretation

This article examines how three major dimensions of leisure behavior, i.e., rates of leisure participation, money expenditure for leisure goods and services and discretionary time available for leisure pursuits, are distributed across various socio‐demographic and socio‐occupational groups. The money expenditures for leisure, it is argued, follow traditional class lines most closely; the rates of leisure participation are characterized by a more egalitarian distribution; and the amounts of leisure time are often inversely related to social centrality and social status. The article interprets these varying patterns of leisure inequalities as a function of the cumulative nature of leisure participation as opposed to the “finite” nature of leisure time, and as a reflection of the complex relationship between leisure, work, income, leisure class, and leisure status.     

Perceived Determinants of Well-Being and Enjoyment Level of Leisure Activities

Two facets of leisure, perceived determinants of well-being and enjoyment of common leisure activities, were investigated in 388 participants. For well-being, a principal components (PCA) analysis yielded five components: competence, relatedness and health, wealth, personal values, and freedom of choice. For the enjoyment of leisure activities, another PCA generated seven components: wellness, sedentary leisure, intellectual leisure, social leisure, routine activities, self-realization, and inner peace. Different leisure enjoyment of young adults (18–30 years old) in contrast to adults and seniors was attributed to social transformations as also predicted by several theories of social change. The relationship between the determinants of well-being and enjoyment of leisure activities was statistically significant but meaningfully debatable.     

A sociopsychological approach to vacation and mobility in touristic sites

Several aspects of socio-psychological research are presented dealing with relationships between transport, leisure, and tourism in France. The socio-psychological approach to long distance travel for leisure and vacation purposes is illustrated by recent studies of family mobility: for instance, family decision-making, sociability and travel, territorial behavior and the “territorialisation” process, and change processes related to the family life-cycle. Traffic problems in touristic sites are also considered. An attempt at an action-research approach shows how traffic management in urban areas could benefit from the use of socio-psychological survey data. The diagnosis, forecasts and evaluation of travel behavior could be made more effective through more active cooperation between traffic policymakers, traffic engineers and social scientists.     

Leisure sciences and leisure studies: Different concept,same crisis?

This article suggests that although United Kingdom leisure studies and North American leisure sciences are characterized by different epistemological, methodological, and theoretical perspectives, they have both arrived at a similar recognition: their relative failure to develop an understanding of the societal, cultural, and individual meanings associated with leisure. The predominantly sociological leisure studies has adopted a society in leisure approach, exploring how broader sociocultural structures are reflected in leisure and largely ignoring issues of individual meaning. The predominantly sociopsychological leisure sciences, with its stress on positivist methodology, has often produced analyses of leisure without society and failed to address issues of the social and cultural meanings associated with leisure. Assertions about a “postmodern condition”; have highlighted the gaps in leisure studies’ understanding of leisure meanings, and critics within leisure sciences have argued that the predominance of one methodology mitigates against adoption of the qualitative methodologies necessary to address the increasingly important issues of leisure diversity and meaning.     

Prediction of leisure participation from behavioral,normative, and control beliefs: An application of the theory of planned behavior

Abstract

The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1985, 1987) is offered as a comprehensive framework for understanding of leisure participation. Salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs, theoretically the basic determinants of behavior, were assessed with respect to five leisure activities: spending time at the beach, jogging or running, mountain climbing, boating, and biking. College students completed a questionnaire containing measures of these beliefs and of global expressions of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. One year later the participants reported how often they had performed each behavior in the preceding 12 months. Behavioral beliefs were found to partition into beliefs about affective reactions and beliefs about costs and benefits. Participation in leisure activities was influenced by these affective and instrumental beliefs, as well as by normative beliefs about the expectations of important others and by control beliefs about required resources and other factors that impede or facilitate leisure participation.     

The relationship of early life experiences to later life leisure involvement

Abstract

Data from the 1982–1983 Nationwide Recreation Survey were used to determine whether late life differences in leisure behavior reflect a response to early life patterns or present‐day socioeconomic differences. Individuals aged 65 and over were categorized as either “expanders”; or “contractors”; based on their pattern of leisure involvement. Differences in lifelong learning of leisure activities between these two groups were examined. In addition, a discriminant analysis was done to determine whether present‐day differences on socio‐demographic variables were effective in differentiating between expanders and contractors. Results showed that expanders altered their leisure patterns by the addition of new activities throughout the life span whereas contractors learned most of their outdoor recreation activities before age 21. However, none of the socio‐demographic variables used in this study were effective in differentiating between the expanders and contractors.     

Playing While Black

Abstract

In the United States, black youth face unique challenges that shape “where” they recreate, “who” they participate with, and “how” they engage in recreation. Recent events around the country have highlighted the potential of racial profiling in leisure settings. As a result, black youth and parents remain aware of the potential dangers of participating in recreation activities in public spaces. As black youth and their families are forced to navigate these realities, our field is presented with opportunities to explore unanswered questions about the relationship between Race and leisure, especially in the area of youth development. Using multiple contemporary examples to demonstrate the impact of Race on the recreation of black youth, three theoretical frameworks are presented that may help advance the discussion on race, recreation, and youth development. Warning: This article includes videos that contain graphic content and may be upsetting to some.     

How Do Playful People Play? Gendered and Racial Leisure Perspectives,Motives, and Preferences of College Students

Playfulness is an aspect of personality that predisposes individuals to reframe boring situations into more amusing ones for themselves. This study extends knowledge about the playfulness construct by contrasting college students who were high or low in playfulness relative to the activity preferences they make, the motives they have, and their perspectives on their leisure time. Significant differences were found in perspectives and motives but not in activity preferences, leading to the conclusion that playfulness relates more to how individuals view their leisure and what they seek than in what they do. Only minor differences due to gender or race were observed.     

Active and Adjusted: Investigating the Contribution of Leisure,Health and Psychosocial Factors to Retirement Adjustment

Engagement in leisure activities during retirement and its relationship to retirement adjustment were investigated. Psychosocial mediators included mastery, self-efficacy for retirement (SE-R) and activities (SE-A), positive (PA) and negative affect (NA). Resources investigated included physical health and finances. Leisure activities examined were social, home entertainment, chores, light exercise, vigorous exercise, and education. Data were gathered from a sample consisting of 243 retirees. Direct predictors of retirement adjustment included finances, health, mastery, SE-R and SE-A. Social activities were the best predictor of a wide range of positive outcomes, including PA, mastery, SE-R and SE-A. Educational activities improved SE-R. Being involved in a broader range of activities was associated with PA, mastery and SE-A. Familiarity and enjoyment of activities were implicated in the maintenance and continuation of activities at post-retirement. Research findings have implications for aged-care and other retirement service providers, as well as for individuals.     

Bridging the Conceptual Frameworks of Constraints Negotiation and Serious Leisure to Understand Leisure Benefit Realization

Constraints negotiation and serious leisure are two major conceptual frameworks that have developed independently to understand individuals’ leisure participation. Although discrete ideas, they are conceptually similar in light of the fact that they address individuals’ leisure pursuits to attain various desirable benefits. The most important connections between these two frameworks lie in their assertion of different challenges inherent in leisure pursuits together with the need for serious efforts to reach leisure goals. Using a sample of Wisconsin anglers, the goal of this study is to better understand individuals’ benefit realization process by jointly examining the two conceptual frameworks of constraints negotiation and serious leisure. The study results suggest that negotiation strategies or efforts, which are at the center of both perspectives, play a key role in realizing diverse beneficial outcomes and developing unique leisure identities.     

‘Real Ale’ Enthusiasts,Serious Leisure and the Costs of Getting ‘Too Serious’ About Beer

The article uses the concept of serious leisure to explain the leisure commitments made by members of the British consumer campaign group the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) and that of Real Ale enthusiasts in general. Drawing on in-depth qualitative research including interviews with CAMRA branch members and staff, the article demonstrates that beer appreciation can be understood as a serious rather than a casual leisure activity. While many of the benefits to participation typical of serious leisure activities are identified, so are the numerous “costs” involved. Beyond costs relating to money, time, obligation, and organizational conflicts, the article suggests that Real Ale enthusiasts are at times marginalized by wider cultural stereotypes positioning them as obsessive and snobbish. The article concludes with discussion of how the concept of the cultural omnivore might explain how serious leisure practitioners are often marginalized because of their specialism in a single field rather than many.     

An analysis of the social unit of participation and the perceived psychological outcomes associated with most enjoyable recreation activities

Abstract

Two research questions were addressed by this study: (1) to determine the predominant social units in which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable recreation activities, and (2) to determine if a relationship exists between the social units with which individuals participate in their two most enjoyable activities and the reasons for participating in these activities. Outdoor activities predominated as individuals’ two most enjoyable activities with a marked predominance of participation in the family/friends social group. Two discriminant analyses revealed a strong relationship between social units of participation and reasons for participation. The reasons of family togetherness, relation with nature, being with people, escaping the family, escaping physical pressure, and meeting new people were the primary discriminating variables in pre‐dicting the social unit of participation. However, these reasons were not, in general, viewed as primary reasons for engaging in one's most enjoyable activities. Therefore, it may be concluded that the type and degree of social interaction desired vary with the social unit of participation, but the primary reasons for participation remain relatively stable regardless of the social unit of participation.     

Social Media Sites as a Means of Coping with a Threatened Social Identity

Since their inception in the early- to mid-2000s, social media sites (SMS) have burgeoned into a popular leisure pursuit with millions of users worldwide. Defined as Internet-based software programs that facilitate communication among individuals, members use them to exchange information, develop friendships, and find social support. Despite their rapid growth as a leisure time activity, there is a dearth of research exploring use of SMS. Using social identity theory as a framework, this study uses quantitative and qualitative data to explore how people who identified as “Penn Staters” used SMS to connect with others and exchange information during and in the wake of the breaking news of the Sandusky Scandal (SS). As predicted, highly identified Penn Staters used SMS to cope with news of the SS. However, interesting variations in usage based on demographic information are presented and discussed, providing greater insight into this increasingly popular leisure trend.     

Purposive Leisure: Examining Parental Discourses on Family Activities

Current social psychological definitions of leisure may not adequately capture or describe family leisure. This study used discourse analysis to explore the meanings of family leisure as revealed by parents of preteen children (aged 10-12 years). The data came from a study of 31 families (23 two-parent families and 8 one-parent families) living in Ontario, Canada. Thirty mothers and 23 fathers were interviewed about their family leisure activities, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs about family participation. Analysis showed that family participation was highly valued by all of the parents. However, rather than being freely chosen or intrinsically motivated, family leisure was purposive in that it was organized and facilitated by parents in order to achieve particular short- and long-term goals. One set of goals related to family functioning, including enhanced family communication and cohesion, and a strong sense of family. Another set of goals related to the beneficial outcomes of family activities for children, including learning about healthy lifestyles as well as learning moral values. It is argued that the purposive nature of this form of leisure practice reflects current ideologies about motherhood, fatherhood, and the family in North American society.