Attitudes toward outdoor recreation development: An application of social exchange theory

A research project was undertaken within a multi‐county region in southeastern Ohio to ascertain the attitudes of local residents toward future outdoor recreation development within the area. A systematic random sample of 1493 respondents was drawn from a five‐county region to test a theoretical perspective developed from selected components of social exchange theory. The findings demonstrated that the respondents held very favorable attitudes toward outdoor recreation development. Multivariate analysis of the data revealed that the theoretical model was basically supported. The findings are discussed from both applied and theoretical perspectives.     

Outdoor recreation expenditures and the effects of spatial structure

Abstract

Visitor expenditure models have been the focus of substantial attention in outdoor recreation research because of their significance in estimating local economic impacts. At the disaggregate level models have usually included simple measures of distance decay and variables representing the attributes of households and supply features. Scholars have ignored the differential effects that the spatial structure of opportunities might have upon expenditures. This paper presents an analysis of the effects of spatial structure upon visitor expenditures for outdoor recreation in Oklahoma. Analyses are presented which identify and differentiate the relative effects of spatial structure upon visitor expenditures and the alternative forms of spatial diversification behavior consistent with such expenditure patterns.     

Financial implications of outdoor recreation planning practices: A case study from Virginia

Abstract

A financial analysis of Virginia's outdoor recreation program is presented. The conclusions of the paper may be applicable to many state recreation programs. First, state recreation planning procedures are not realistic; that is, projected requirements for recreational facility development cannot be satisfied within expected budget constraints. Second, increases in user fees and/or increases in general funds allocated to recreation will be necessary to support only modest recreation development for the future.     

Multiple determinants of satisfaction from a specific waterfowl hunting trip

Abstract

This paper builds upon the multiple satisfaction approach to game management by evaluating the individual and combined effects of three basic dimensions—wildlife, human interaction, and nature/sport—on overall hunting satisfaction. In contrast to previous studies that focused on either hunting in general or deer hunting, this analysis was based on hunter evaluations of a specific waterfowl hunting trip. Results generally support the concept of multiple satisfactions, with a combination of wildlife, human interaction, and nature/sport variables accounting for 36% of the variance in satisfaction. Taken individually, nature/sport items explained more of the variation in satisfaction (R² = .23) than either the wildlife (R² = .08) or the human interaction variables (R² = .14). Some discrepancies were noted between the findings presented here and those reported in previous investigations. For example, contrary to several earlier studies that found success to be an important determinant of satisfaction, the zero‐order correlation between the number of birds bagged by the respondent and overall satisfaction was not significant. Such discrepancies with previous research are attributed to the hunters’ prior experience in the setting, their expectations for success, and the population and setting under investigation.     

Perceived crowding in recreation settings: An urban case study

Abstract

Research on crowding in recreation areas has focused primarily on back‐country settings. This study tests some of the axioms developed from this research and from studies conducted in non‐recreation settings using data from a case study in an urban park. The actual number of visitors present was found to be the most important individual predictor of perceived crowding in this setting. Results suggest that more developed parks, in more urban contexts, may elicit different images and expectations about visitor density. The implications of these findings, as they relate both to studies of perceived crowding and the social definition of parks in general, are discussed.     

Desired recreation companionship and travel behaviour of people with disabilities

This study examines whether people with disabilities(PWD) participate in leisure and travel activities with their desired companions and if there are discrepancies between their social networks and real recreation companions. The recreation companionship and travel behaviour of PWD have not been thoroughly explored, particularly in non-Western contexts. Accordingly, data were collected from 494 respondents in South Korea, and findings suggest that there was a significant gap between companions PWD desire and those they actually maintain. Travel and tourism were the least frequent recreation activities for PWD. The results can provide managerial implications regarding practices of inclusive and accessible tourism.     

Discrimination in public recreation: Attitudes toward and participation of females

Historically, women have been discriminated against in a number of ways. In recreation, the same is true. This study, carried out among Ontario recreation administrators, reveals male‐female differences in wages, responsibility, participation and programs. A number of alternatives and suggestions for change, including both legislation and economic sanction, are given in the report, along with a number of possible directions for future research.     

Value orientations toward coral reefs in recreation and tourism settings: a conceptual and measurement approach

This paper examines recreationist and tourist value orientations toward coral reefs (e.g. protection–use, biocentric-anthropocentric), tests a scale for measuring these orientations in recreation and tourism settings, groups individuals based on their orientations and examines demographic and activity differences among groups. Data were obtained from surveys of 2821 users at three coastal and marine sites in Hawai'i. Belief statements about reefs (e.g. “coral reefs have value whether humans are present or not”) were used to measure value orientations. Users agreed with protectionist and disagreed with use-oriented beliefs. Except for one statement (“humans should manage coral reefs so that humans benefit”), the scale provided a reliable and valid measure of value orientations toward reefs. Respondents were grouped into three subgroups (strong protection, moderate protection, mixed protection–use). The largest number of users had strong protectionist orientations toward reefs, and there was no group possessing only use orientations. There were no relationships between value orientations and site, age and residence. Females, snorkelers and sunbathers had stronger protectionist orientations, whereas most scuba divers and anglers had mixed orientations. Given that most respondents had protectionist orientations, efforts to conserve reefs would be supported, whereas activities with deleterious effects on reefs would not be widely supported.     

The importance of urban milieu in predicting recreation participation: The case of day hiking

Abstract

Numerous outdoor recreation forecasting studies have included household characteristics as well as aspects of the recreation facilities and accessibility. Only a few studies, however, have included in the prediction equation any measure of the effects of urban milieu on behavior. Four commonly cited surrogates of urban milieu are used to cluster the cities of Illinois into three relatively homogeneous groups of environments. Regression analyses are then undertaken using individual household data, aspects of the recreation facilities patronized by the households, participation, and distance and travel time estimates. Comparisons of the regression analyses indicate that, as a concept, milieu is an important predictor of both the volume of recreation participation and salient features of recreation facilities.     

Motivations of adventure recreation in an emerging market: scale development and an empirical study on mainland Chinese enthusiasts

China has been recognized as one of the world’s largest tourism markets. However, relatively little attention has been given to this market as potential sources of adventure recreation (AR). Based on in-depth interviews of 31 AR enthusiasts, a pilot online study, and a final survey of 202 Chinese AR enthusiasts, an AR Participating Motivation Scale (PMS) for the Chinese market was developed for the first time and five distinctive motivation factors were identified. The similarities and differences between Chinese and Western AR motivation were discussed. It is hoped to highlight a useful approach to understand Chinese enthusiasts’ diverse psychological demand.     

Development of a Scale to Measure Social Capital in Recreation and Sport Clubs

ABSTRACT

Social capital's measurement has been limited and an effective scale is needed. This research employed focus groups and interviews and a panel of experts to provide understanding and items for a social capital scale in sport and recreation setting. After a pilot study the Club Social Capital Scale (CSCS) was completed by 1,079 members of sport and recreation clubs. This 42-item scale included the factors trust, friendship, acceptance, reciprocity, norms, and governance. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 20-item four component (governance, norms, friendship-acceptance, and trust-reciprocity) CSCS. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the potential four or five factor model and the hierarchical structure. The CSCS is the first psychometrically developed instrument to measure the factors underlying social capital rather than its outcomes. It can inform policy makers or sport and recreation administrators to establish baseline social capital in their organization and the efficacy of interventions or changes in policy.     

Voluntary association membership of outdoor recreationists: An exploratory study

Abstract

Research on the political activity of outdoor recreationists has focused primarily on their associational affiliations and concern for the environment. This article reviews literature on theories of collective behavior, recreation motivations, and environmental concern. The study considers outdoor recreation as a social movement and investigates relationships between incentives for voluntary membership in environmental and outdoor recreation associations, motivations for participation in outdoor recreation activities, and environmental concern. Members of associations were found to be significantly different than nonmembers on several variables including value for outdoor recreation, incentives for association membership, intellectual motivations for outdoor recreation, environmental concern, education level, and age. Results suggest that association efforts to obtain instrumental benefits, or public goods that accrue to all of society, are a primary incentive for outdoor recreationists to join voluntary associations. A common thread of intellectual pursuit distinguished members from nonmembers, suggesting that intellectual benefits may help define the relationship between outdoor recreation and associational affiliation behaviors.     

Residents,their use of a tourist facility and contribution to tourist ambience: Narratives from a film tourism site in Beijing

Any tourist site open to local residents represents a point where residents and tourists become a back drop for the experiences of the other. This paper examines a specific Beijing film tourism attraction, Grand View Gardens, and the manner in which the site is used by local residents, the meanings attributed to it, and residents' role in creating an ambience for tourists. Residents have a daily connection with the site, and form audiences for events held at the Gardens. They often interact with tourists, becoming a source of information for tourists. The paper examines residents' motives for using such attractions, their attitudes towards tourists and suggests they possess a role in the creation of a sense of place that is valued by tourists. The paper fills a gap in an under-researched area, where, in the Chinese context, both residents and visitors form backdrops to each other's experience of place.     

Visitors to national parks: A test of the elitism argument

It frequently has been assumed that the poor and some minority groups largely lack the financial wherewithal to travel to America's national parks. Data showing an underrepresentation of the poor among visitors at some parks has spurred charges of “elitism” in national park use, and has been an often‐used argument to justify more development (especially the provision of low‐cost facilities) in the national parks. This study tested for relationships between several status characteristics and the national park visitation of residents of the Pacific Coastal Region. As hypothesized, income, education, occupation and a cumulative status measure were all positively related to the frequency of national park going. But the low magnitude of the relationships suggests that the charges of “elitism” in national park going are overdrawn, and that perhaps there has been a substantial democratization of social‐class access to a “national park experience” during this century.     

Issues in diversity in recreation and leisure studies: perspectives from US educators at a public institution of higher education

The value of academic and professional role models cannot be overestimated for today's college and university students of all races. Students are the generational link in the perpetuation of the leisure services profession and 'belong' to the profession via their initial enculturation in educational encounters. Accredited programmes in leisure studies at comprehensive US public colleges have missions that mandate attention to diversity. The following article integrates and synthesizes thought from the most contemporary literature on diversity in higher education, and writings in the discipline of recreation and leisure studies. The authors describe how the instruction of students in leisure studies programmes can benefit from faculty/staff who either represent, or deliberately emphasize, diversity. Positive potential outcomes are presented as they enhance the act of teaching and the process of learning for recreation and leisure studies majors in an increasingly complex, multicultural world.     

Use of social media across the trip experience: An application of latent transition analysis

Recent advanced technologies have enabled travelers to communicate, interact, and form relationships with destinations, businesses, and other travelers through social media. However, the nature/patterns of use of social media by travelers varies substantially between travelers and across the trip experience (e.g. pre-, during, and post-trip); consequently, travelers develop their own idiosyncratic strategies (i.e. media repertoires) for information searching, communicating, and storing memories. There are four distinct and dominant repertoires of social media use across the three stages of the trip experience. As such, the findings clearly indicate that destination marketers should target the respective groups very differently.     

Cruising in Asia: what can we dig from online cruiser reviews to understand their experience and satisfaction

In the e-tourism era, online customer reviews with pictures, textual comments, etc. have become a significant information source affecting customers’ purchase intention and behavior. Big data analytics with text mining, semantic network analysis and factor analysis, and regression analysis were applied to help understand cruiser experience and its relationship to cruiser satisfaction in the Asian cruise market through online cruiser reviews. Research results confirmed the dimensions of cruise experience from previous studies, while more importantly, “Onshore attributes” was explored in this study using the insight of big data, which was never investigated as a facet of cruise experience previously.     

Exploring Everyday Self-Regulation in Nearby Nature: Determinants,Patterns, and a Framework of Nearby Outdoor Recreation Behavior

The understanding of determinants and underlying mechanisms of everyday nearby outdoor recreation behavior (NORB) remains insufficient for use in urban planning. We explored the nearby recreational decisions of walkers, cyclists, and joggers in problem-focused interviews (N = 18). The identified influences include various demands of work and private life, strains, and action circumstances. Loads and strains showed several compensatory associations with NORB. These findings were synthesized into a NORB framework that offers empirically grounded hypotheses for future research. The proposed framework may help to integrate findings from different research fields while providing a more comprehensive understanding of NORB.     

Insights from images posted on social media: Examining the motivations of volunteer tourists

Extensive research has been conducted on the motivations of volunteer tourists; however, the scope has not included how motivation is expressed through the posting of images on social media. This study examines the relationship between volunteer tourists’ motivations and social media use through the identification of picture publishing behavior based on motivations. An online survey yielding 260 complete responses is used and statistical tests investigate the relationship between demographic factors, motivations and social sharing of photos. The results show that demographics have little impact; however, there is a relationship between motivation and photo sharing and between motivation and volume of photos.     

The effect of on-site experience and place attachment on loyalty: Evidence from Chinese tourists in a hot-spring resort

As an antecedent of place attachment, on-site experience plays a key role in obtaining customer loyalty in the context of a hot-spring resort operation. However, few studies have addressed the consequences of on-site experience in terms of its components and examined empirically the relationship between on-site experience and place attachment. This study was focused on ascertaining the dimensions of on-site experience and examining the relationship between on-site experience and loyalty through place attachment. A conceptualization of on-site experience is proposed, with three dimensions: environmental experience, on-site self-related experience, and on-site social interaction. The results revealed interesting relationships between components of on-site experience and place attachment. Finally, managerial implications of the results are discussed for managers of hot-spring resorts.