工作特征对性别工资差距的作用

补偿性工资是解释性别工资差距的理论之一。本文利用2006年中国综合社会调查(CGSS2006)数据同时考察了人力资本和工作特征的工资效应,并采用Jann(2008)提出的无歧视工资机制的估计方法,对性别工资差距进行了分解分析。研究发现,我国城镇劳动力市场两性的工作特征存在显著的差异,但部分工作特征对工资的作用方向并不符合补偿性工资理论的预期。管理职务上的差异对性别工资差距具有一定的解释作用,但加入大量的工作特征变量后,性别工资差距中总的可解释部分没有明显提高。由此推论,性别歧视可能是形成工资差距的重要因素。促进性别平等和妇女发展必须采取更加积极的公共政策和反歧视措施。     

Wage differentials by sector and gender: a quantile analysis for the Spanish case

This paper analyses existing wage differentials between workers in the public and private sectors and by gender in Spain. This analysis is run throughout the entire earnings distribution and observed wage differentials are decomposed into a part explained by differences in productive characteristics and a part due to differences in returns to such characteristics. Our results show that public sector workers tend to earn higher wages than private employees, although most of this sector wage gap is due to better public workers’ productive characteristics. A wage premium in favour of men is also found in both the public and private sectors, with the gender wage gap greater at the top of the earnings distribution.     

Swimming with the Tide: Solidary Wage Policy and the Gender Earnings Gap

This paper addresses the consequences of wage compression for the gender wage gap in Sweden during the period 1968–1991. We find that the effects of changes in the wage structure on women's wages have varied over time and have been partly counteracting. Changes in industry wage differentials have systematically worked against women, while changes in the returns to human capital and unobserved characteristics have contributed to reductions in the gender wage gap. Changes in the wage structure were particularly important between 1968 and 1974 when there was a dramatic reduction in overall wage inequality.
JEL classification : J 16; J 31; J 51     

Performance-related pay and gender wage differences

We study the impact of performance-related pay (PRP) on gender wage differences using Finnish-linked employer–employee panel data. Controlling for unobserved person and firm effects, we find that bonuses increase women’s earnings slightly less than men’s, but the economic significance of the difference is negligible. Piece rates and reward rates, however, tend to increase gender wage differentials. Thus, the nature of a PRP plan is important for gauging the impact of PRP on gender wage differentials. A comparison with OLS results shows the importance of controlling for an unobserved person and firm effects.     

金融发展与地区实体经济资本配置效率-来自省级工业行业数据的证据

职位隔离是形成性别收入差距的重要机制.本文构建一个引入了职位晋升机制的收入差距分解方法,利用2006年中国综合社会调查数据,考察了职位隔离对性别收入差距的作用,且在统一的模型框架内识别和估计了职位内工资歧视(同工不同酬)和晋升歧视的程度.研究结果发现,女性过多地集中于职位"金字塔"结构的底层.尽管职位晋升的工资效应不存在显著的性别差异,但约41%的性别收入差距是由于职位隔离导致的.工资歧视是职位层级内部性别收入差距的主要来源.与之类似,职位晋升歧视能够解释1/4的性别收入差距.因此,除了同工同酬政策,促进职位晋升的机会平等是缩小性别收入差距的重要措施,意即"同酬"还需"同工".     

Educational Attainment and the Gender Wage Gap: A Comparison of Young Men and Women in 1984 and 2007

This study pools data from two sources to investigate the role of educational attainment in determining the gender wage gap. The empirical analysis reveals that the returns to education remained largely unchanged for young men but declined significantly for young women over the period 1984–2007. We find significant evidence of a decline in the returns to a Bachelor's degree for young women as well as evidence of increasing wage inequality over time among young men and women with a Bachelor's degree. Also, in 2007, the gender wage gap between young men and women was largest for those with a Bachelor's degree. Further, our analysis suggests that young women with a college education may confront more discrimination in the labor market than young women without a college education. We conclude that promoting educational attainment among young women may be a necessary but not sufficient condition for addressing the gender wage gap.     

Gender differences in productivity rewards: the role of human capital

In this paper, we evaluate the gender wage gap component due to differences in characteristics’ rewards in Italy. The main focus is on the relationship between human capital characteristics and gender differences in rewards. We propose a methodology that combines the quantile regression analysis with non-parametric procedures for the estimation of the probability density functions of reward differentials in order to evaluate the evolution of the gap due to human capital characteristics. The analysis is carried out on Italian data taken from the latest available cross-section of the European Community Household Panel (2001). Our study suggests that education can be a good productivity signal and helps reduce the range of the gap; furthermore, highly educated women experience lesser gender-based pay differences as the length of the employment relationship increases.     

Fertility Decisions and Gender Differences in Labor Turnover, Employment, and Wages

A striking observation of the U.S. and other labor markets is the weak position of women in terms of job attachment, employment, and earnings relative to men. We develop a model of fertility and labor market decisions to study the impact of fertility on gender differences in labor turnover, employment, and wages. In our framework, individuals search for jobs and accumulate general (experience) and specific (tenure) human capital when they work. They can also increase their wage by moving to a job of higher quality. Labor market decisions (e.g., job acceptance and job mobility) may differ across genders: females that give birth may decide to interrupt their labor market attachment in order to enjoy the value of staying at home with their children. The model economy is successfully calibrated to match aggregate statistics in terms of fertility, employment, and wages. We find that fertility decisions generate important gender differences in turnover rates, with long lasting effects in employment and wages. These differences in labor turnover account for almost all the U.S. gender wage gap that is attributed to labor market experience by Blau and Kahn (2000, Journal of Labor Economics15(1), 1–42). The model also implies a very small role of tenure capital in accounting for wage differences between males and females (gender gap), and between females with and without children (family gap). Journal of Economic Literature Classification Numbers: E24, J13, J21, J31.     

Capital market integration and gender inequality

This study explores the effects of globalization on gender inequality. Specifically, we describe how, in terms of capital market integration, globalization alters the gender gap in wage rates through changes in labor demand for capital‐intensive sectors. Consequently, via changes in the bargaining positions of men and women, globalization leads to opposite effects on the couple's labor supply and fertility decisions in capital‐importing and capital‐exporting countries. Moreover, by considering the properties of the industrial structures of capital‐importing and capital‐exporting countries, we show that globalization induces empirically observed declines in fertility rates throughout the world.     

Minimum Wages and the Gender GAP in Pay: New Evidence from the United Kingdom and Ireland

Women are disproportionately in low‐paid work compared to men so, in the absence of rationing effects on their employment, they should benefit the most from minimum wage policies. This study examines the change in the gender wage gap around the introduction of minimum wages in Ireland and the United Kingdom (U.K.). Using survey data for the two countries, we develop a decomposition of the change in the gender differences in wage distributions around the date of introduction of minimum wages. We separate out “price” effects attributed to minimum wages from “employment composition” effects. A significant reduction of the gender gap at low wages is observed after the introduction of the minimum wage in Ireland, while there is hardly any change in the U.K. Counterfactual simulations show that the difference between countries may be attributed to gender differences in non‐compliance with the minimum wage legislation in the U.K.     

Economies of Scale, International Capital Mobility, and North-South Inequality

This paper develops a model of North-South trade with a continuum of goods, external economies of scale and international capital mobility. The North-South wage gap must exceed any difference in labor quality for South to overcome the established external economies in North. In equilibrium North retains the goods with the largest external economies and South specializes in the remaining goods. While Northern product innovation leads to the production of additional goods in South, it is possible for South to experience a terms-of-trade deterioration, a reduction in foreign investment, and an increase in wage and income inequality.     

THE IMPACT OF PERSONALITY TRAITS ON WAGE GROWTH AND THE GENDER WAGE GAP

This paper considers the impact of personality traits on the change of the gender wage gap. Using data from the German Socioeconomic Panel (SOEP), we first explore how personality traits affect wage growth rates. Then, a decomposition analysis is performed to analyse the dynamic effects of personality traits on the change of the gender wage gap over time. Our empirical results indicate that gender differences in conscientiousness and emotional stability lead to a widening of the wage gap over time. By contrast, gender differences in extraversion lead to a narrowing of the wage gap over time.     

Influence Factors on Gender Wage Gap: Evidences from Chinese Household Income Project Survey

By constructing a gender wage gap evolution model, this paper examines the source and evolutionary process of gender wage inequality from a theoretical perspective. The purpose of this study is thoroughly investigating the factors affecting the gender wage inequality from the perspective of gender discrimination and variations in non-gender endowments. Based on the Chinese Household Income Project Survey Data, this study indicates that: (1) since companies continue to re-evaluate the gender endowment value of gender, the gender wage inequality exhibits an endogenous sustainability and self-reinforcing effect. (2) The gender wage gap of urban residents is derived mainly from the top tier of wages, while the gender wage gap of the migrant people is mainly determined from the bottom rung of wages. (3) Female age has a ‘U-curve’ impact on gender wage inequality from the standpoint of non-gender endowment differences, and the female age has an ‘inverted U-curve’ impact on gender wage inequality as a result of discrimination. (4) Female appearance and actual work hours are insufficient to affect the changing trend of gender wage inequality; however, h-register location and marital status are still considered to be very important.     

Does union membership reduce gender earnings differentials? Evidence from employer–employee matched data in China

This paper examines whether union membership reduces gender earnings differentials in the Chinese labour market using an employer–employee matched data set. We have three main findings. First, union membership helps reduce the gender differentials in hourly wage and monthly allowance, but not in monthly basic wage and yearly bonus. Second, ensuring that female workers receive overtime pay is one way by which union membership helps reduce the gender earnings differentials. Third, controlling for firm fixed effects reduces the effect of union membership on the gender gap in hourly wage and monthly allowance, which means that the unobserved firm characteristics might impact the effect of union membership on gender earnings differentials.     

城镇内部行业收入差距成因的实证研究

运用2012年中国劳动力动态调查微观数据,结合Heckman样本选择方法,估计垄断行业和竞争行业的收入方程,结果发现,垄断对行业收入的影响远大于性别、教育、工作经验等个人特征。运用Shapley值分解方法,考察各因素对我国城镇内部行业工资差距的贡献,结果发现,人力资本因素对行业收入差距的贡献最大。分行业看,人力资本因素能够解释垄断行业收入差距的一半左右,管理岗位对竞争行业收入差距的贡献最大,性别因素对竞争行业收入差距的贡献高出垄断行业两倍,非农户口在解释垄断行业收入差距时的贡献要远大于竞争行业。因此,缩小我国行业收入差距,亟需打破行业垄断壁垒,提高劳动者的受教育水平,减轻劳动者地区间流动障碍。     

National labor markets, international factor mobility and macroeconomic instability

We consider a standard two-country environment, where one of the two countries has a rigid labor market, and analyze how global economic integration affects the economies with respect to expectations-driven cycles and steady state welfare. We show that by allowing free capital mobility, equilibrium indeterminacy is exported from the rigid wage country to the world economy. If further liberalization is permitted, by allowing free movements of labor, the scope for indeterminacy is reduced and open labor markets may produce a stabilizing effect on the global macro-economy. Whether this also implies higher welfare in the long run depends on differentials in average firm size across countries, which determines the direction of migration flows.     

Labour market discrimination and the macroeconomy

We measure the discriminatory ethnic and gender wage gaps in Georgia. Gender wage discrimination is larger than the ethnic wage discrimination. We use the estimated gaps in a general‐to‐specific vector autoregression framework to test for Granger causality between discrimination and growth, and estimate the long‐run effects of each variable on the other. Granger causality is found to be bidirectional, but it is only the net long‐run effect of discrimination on growth that is a large and highly significant negative effect. In the long‐run, a 10% increase in ethnic (gender) discrimination reduces economic growth by 3%–4% (8%–10%). Additionally, ethnic and gender wage differentials are found to be counter‐cyclical.     

部门选择对工资性别差距的影响：1988-2001年

基于1988-2001年的UHS数据库，本文首先研究的是男女部门选择分散程度（以Ducan分散指数来表示）和工资差距的趋势。结果发现，前者的趋势是先平稳、后下降、再上升，后者的趋势是先平稳、后上升、再下降。本文还利用Appleton分解方法研究了部门选择影响工资性别差距的具体程度，结果表明，除了中间的某些年份（1992-1996年），部门选择对工资性别差距的影响并不大，即使在那些特殊的年份，影响程度也不会超过20％。因此，缩小性别之间工资差距的关键是降低两者在部门内的工资差异。     

Gender gap,capital accumulation and the demographic transition

This paper focuses on explaining the demographic transition and some of the broad patterns that are associated with it. We present an endogenous growth model that incorporates altruism and son preference within the family as well as gender wage gap and gender wage discrimination in the labour market. We show that with the accumulation of physical capital and human capital, the output share of mental labour increases and the gender wage gap narrows. In the early stages of economic development, gender discrimination is becoming prevalent and the substitution effect of capital accumulation, which raises the cost of child rearing, is dominated by the income effect, so the growth rate of population increases with income. When the degree of gender wage discrimination starts to decline, the increased cost of child rearing induces families to invest more in the human capital of children and the growth rate of the population falls. The quantitative analysis shows that gender wage discrimination is indeed an important contributor to the demographic transition.     

Decomposing growth in the gender wage gap in urban China: 1989–2011

This paper examines trends in the gender wage gap observed in urban China during the post‐reform era. Using China Health and Nutrition Survey data, changes to the gap between 1989 and 2011 are analyzed using the Wellington decomposition method. While women's gains in observed characteristics have narrowed the wage gap, they are more than offset by changes in the returns to these characteristics. Men's returns to potential labour market experience have grown particularly rapidly, relative to women's, and this represents the single largest contributing factor towards the widening of the gender wage gap. Further investigation explores gender wage patterns through the dimensions of occupation, ownership sector and birth cohort. Taken together, my results raise concerns that China's urban labour market may increasingly disincentivize women's long‐term labour force attachments.