Why IRR is an inadequate indicator of costs and returns in relation to PFI schemes

The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) is a commonly used indicator of the performance of Private Finance Initiative (PFI), schemes in the UK. Treasury guidance recognises, however, that IRR is potentially misleading, unless the relevant payment streams are of a flat, annuity, type. This paper uses data on a number of actual PFI schemes to examine whether the payment streams involved are sufficiently flat for IRR to be a reliable indicator. There is clear evidence that the assumption of flat payment profiles in PFI schemes is violated. As a result, quoting IRR alone in the PFI context is liable to understate both the true opportunity cost of PFI finance to the public sector, and the potential scale of private sector profit.Our analysis also indicates that a statistic based on average outstanding debt is a reliable indicator of the extent of departures of the relevant payment profiles from annuity type.     

The U.K. private finance initiative: An accounting retrospective

The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) in the U.K. has been the subject of considerable interest in government, professional and academic literature. This reflects its importance as one of the classic forms of Public Private Partnership, its adoption in other jurisdictions, the scale of infrastructure investment under PFI legislation and the extent of controversy that has accompanied its development and application. The financial reporting of PFI schemes has been one element of this controversy in view of its potential to limit public sector financial accountability by off-balance sheet financing and the potential for alternative interpretations of its accounting treatment. It is now an appropriate time to review the turbulent history of accounting for the PFI as U.K. public sector accounting is now based upon International Financial Reporting Standards. This has resulted in the redundancy of previous accounting guidance issued by the UK ASB and the Treasury which, at the time of being abandoned, contained unresolved inconsistencies.This paper uses a triangulation method of investigation linking the input to, and output from, the regulatory process to an analysis of public domain evidence of press coverage and letters submitted to the standard setter and interviews with key participants to the standard-setting process. This approach shows that hidden pressures were influential in the process of developing PFI accounting regulation. Different interpretations of the ASB's principles-based Application Note and the Treasury's more rules-based Technical Note created de-facto alternative accounting treatments. The pressure, from organisations such as the Financial Reporting Advisory Board, for reform of PFI accounting was only released by the government's decision to switch the U.K. public sector to IFRS-based accounting.     

Debate: Local councils' dilemma of planning for uncertainty

The public expenditure implications of PFI projects in Scotland's NHS are substantial. This article compares PFI capital expenditure with projected unitary charges, examines the annual cost of existing PFI schemes and looks at future costs arising from the planned expansion of PFI. Unless the new Scottish National Party-led administration applies the breaks, the annual cost of PFI to Scotland's NHS is to increase almost five-fold, from £107.1 million in 2005/06 to £500 million by the early part of the next decade.     

PFI, Public—Private Partnerships and the Neglected Importance of Process: Stakeholders and the Employment Dimension

The prominence of Private Finance Initiative (PFI) and Public—Private Partnership (PPP) policy and practice is growing as a mechanism for improving resources available to, and value for money throughout, UK public services. This interest has not been accompanied by an appropriate level of academic scrutiny, nor by depth of insight into the impact of the PFI/PPP process upon public sector organizations. The authors draw on the experience of a National Health Service PFI project to examine key aspects of the PFI process, in particular, structural characteristics affecting design and implementation of PFI projects, financial and other organizational costs, and the nature of stakeholder involvement and the wider employment dimension. The article concludes by reflecting on implications for PFI/PPP policy, management and research.     

PFIs involving multiple public partners: a case study from the Italian healthcare sector

The financial crisis experienced by many countries since 2008 has given new importance to private finance initiatives (PFIs) for providing public services. This paper analyses the relationships between multiple public and private sector actors participating in a PFI in the healthcare sector in order to better understand the motives and behaviour of public and private sector partners. High levels of trust and the active participation of a regulatory body were found to be significant factors in terms of creating a partnership that benefits all sides.     

Accounting for the Private Finance Initiative in the United Kingdom National Health Service

This paper examines the operation of the UK government's Private Finance Initiative (PFI) from the viewpoint of accounting in the National Health Service. It explores how the entity concept may be used to remove representation of the economic consequences of such schemes from public accounting reports. Illustrations are provided from the accounts of hospital NHS Trusts, with their high-value and politically sensitive capital projects. The paper provides contemporary evidence of the financial reporting of PFI schemes and the contradictions between the form and substance of these transactions.     

A Commissioner's Tale: Avery Hill Student Village, University of Greenwich

Avery Hill was one of the first Private Finance Initiative (PFI) projects in higher education. It illustrates some possible opportunities for the sector to increase its capital investment and demonstrates that commissioning PFI projects involves more than identifying capital costs and transferring risks. It also signifies the benefits of an experience of procurement and a commitment to ride through the peaks and troughs of a tortuous process.     

Crucial silences: When accountability met PFI and finance capital

During recent years, a wide spectrum of research has questioned whether public services/infrastructure procurement through private finance, as exemplified by the UK Private Finance Initiative (PFI), meets minimum standards of democratic accountability. While broadly agreeing with some of these arguments, this paper suggests that this debate is flawed on two grounds. Firstly, PFI is not about effective procurement, or even about a pragmatic choice of procurement mechanisms which can potentially compromise public involvement and input; rather it is about a process where the state creates new profit opportunities at a time when the international financial system is increasingly lacking in safe investment opportunities. Secondly, because of its primary function as investment opportunity, PFI, by its very nature, prioritises the risk-return criteria of private finance over the needs of the public sector client and its stakeholders. Using two case studies of recent PFI projects, the paper illustrates some of the mechanisms through which finance capital exercises control over the PFI procurement process. The paper concludes that recent proposals aimed at “reforming” or “democratising” PFI fail to recognise the objective constraints which this type of state-finance capital nexus imposes on political process.     

ACCOUNTABILITY AND VALUE FOR MONEY IN PRIVATE FINANCE INITIATIVE CONTRACTS

Within the context of New Public Management (NPM), successive UK governments have claimed that PFI projects provide more accountability, and arguably, more value for money (VFM) than conventional procurement for the public ( HM Treasury 1995, 2000, 2003a and 2003b ). However, recent empirical research in the UK on PFI has indicated its potential limitations for accountability and VFM ( Broadbent, Gill and Laughlin, 2004 ; Edwards, Shaoul, Stafford and Arblaster, 2004 ; Shaoul, 2005 ; and Ismail and Pendlebury, 2006 ) albeit these are based on either published accounts or a limited number of key stakeholders. This paper attempts to partially redress this gap in the literature by presenting an interesting case of the impact of PFI on accountability and VFM in Northern Ireland's education sector. The findings of this research, based on forty two interviews with a wide range of key stakeholders, suggest that stakeholders have different and often conflicting expectations and the actual PFI accountability and VFM benefits are much more obfuscated than those claimed in Government publications.     

Appraising and Evaluating PFI for NHS Hospitals

This paper explores the use of appraisal in the development of proposals to use private finance to provide acute hospitals under the Private Finance Initiative (PFI). It addresses the extent to which value for money (VFM) and affordability (which must be satisfied to enable a scheme to be approved) are demonstrated in the documents prepared by hospital Trusts. It identifies a number of issues (such as the transfer of risk and the development of public sector comparators) that pose new problems for investment appraisal, which are specific to its application to PFI.     

The actual evaluation of school PFI bids for value for money in the UK public sector

Much of the literature on value for money (VFM) evaluation of private finance initiative (PFI) contracts has concentrated on the financial methodology of constructing the public sector comparator (PSC) and its limitations. In contrast, this paper focuses on examining how ‘PFI bids’ are actually evaluated for VFM in the case of three secondary school PFI contracts. It is a unique study which presents the Northern Ireland school PFI decision-making processes, within the broader UK context. It is based on the full business cases of three PFI schools and interviews with key actors involved in the PFI processes. This study shows that the methodology used to evaluate and benchmark the design, facilities management, financial and contractual aspects of PFI bids for VFM is subjective and problematic-changes in the assumptions used may easily shift the balance in favour of conventional procurement and/or competing private sector service providers. It further highlights the importance of risk transfer; how non-financial factors are taken into consideration; and the public sector's reliance on consulting firms and ‘accounting measures’ in the PFI decision-making processes.     

The UK Financial Sector and Risk Management in PFI Projects: A Survey

In PFI transactions the private companies which take on the obligation to build and manage a facility usually provide only a small fraction of the project's capital requirements. Most of the capital is borrowed from banks and other financial institutions. This poses challenges to financial services providers which often have to retain untypical residual project risks. This article describes the types of risks faced by financial services providers and the strategies they use to cope with these risks. Given the often politically-sensitive nature of PFI projects, the authors suggest that financial institutions should investigate a broader set of parameters than they do at present, which relate directly to the political economy of PFI projects.     

A critical financial analysis of the Private Finance Initiative: selecting a financing method or allocating economic wealth?

The UK government’s Private Finance Initiative (PFI) policy raises a series of questions about the rationality and distributive implications of using private finance, inevitably more expensive than public finance, in essential public services. This paper, by examining the process, the financial methodology, its assumptions and the data used in the system of appraisal for new hospital builds under PFI, shows that the decisions rested upon the ambiguous concepts of risk transfer and value for money at the level of the individual hospital rather than the system or society as a whole. These concepts were far from neutral and provided the rationalising motif for a process that transfers resources from the public at large to the financial elite, thereby obscuring the distribution issues that were largely missing from the policy debate.     

信任与欺骗:投资者为什么陷入庞氏骗局？——来自e租宝88.9万名投资者的经验证据

庞氏骗局是金融学的重要话题,但是使用大样本数据进行的实证研究较为匮乏。本文首次利用e租宝88.9万名投资者的微观数据研究投资者陷入庞氏骗局的原因,研究表明,信任是使投资者陷入庞氏骗局的重要原因。首先,投资者的投资探索行为使其逐步积累起对平台的信任。本文发现:投资者待回收本金会随着投资笔数的增多而显著增多,即投资者过往投资中得到及时还款等正面反馈而逐步建立起对平台的信任。其次,投资者也会受到朋辈效应的影响。研究发现:随着e租宝平台存续时间延长,投资者待回收本金显著增多所需的投资笔数越来越少,即投资者投资决策会受到朋辈的影响,所以在投资者整体数量变多后,投资者加深了对平台的信任。此外,外部信任背书也是导致投资者陷入庞氏骗局的重要因素。本文发现央视广告当期新增投资者首次投资金额和原有投资者待回收本金都显著增加,即央视广告使投资者相信该平台的可靠性。本文从内部视角研究庞氏骗局投资者的微观投资规律,对后续的研究具有一定的启发意义。     

Creating advocates: understanding the roles of CSR and firm innovativeness

Although previous studies revealed the positive effect of CSR perceptions on customer behaviour, the relationship between CSR and perceived firm innovativeness (PFI) has been underexplored. The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, it attempts to propose and validate a model to comprehend the relationship between CSR and PFI. Second, it aims to investigate the mediating role of corporate image stemming from CSR and PFI in order to foster customer advocacy intentions. Data were collected from 360 customers of the retail banking industry in Pakistan, and the results indicate that customers’ CSR perceptions directly and positively influence PFI. Interestingly, corporate image fully mediates the relationship between PFI and advocacy intentions, whereas it plays a partial mediation role in the CSR-advocacy intentions relationship. The findings of this research expand the corpus regarding the roles of CSR and PFI in creating advocacy intentions among customers through the corporate image.

     

Occupation,driving experience,and risk and accident perception

The contemporary understanding of public sector risk management entails a broadening of the traditional bureaucratic approach to risk beyond the boundaries of purely financial risks. However, evidence suggests that in reality public sector risk management does not always match the rhetoric. This paper focuses on the apparent inadequacy of any risk framework in the current Prudential Borrowing Framework (PBF) guidance in relation to that which was developed under Public Private Partnerships and Private Finance Initiative (PFI). Our analysis shows that the PBF and its associated indicators for local authorities adopt a narrow financial approach and fail to account for the full range of potential risks associated with capital projects. The PBF does not provide a framework for local authorities to consider long‐term risk and fails to encourage understanding of the generic nature of risk. The introduction of the PBF appears to represent a retrograde step from PPP/PFI as regards risk and risk management.     

The Private Finance Initiative: risk, uncertainty and the state

This paper analyses the UK's Private Finance Initiative (PFI) at a conceptual level by focusing on the management of risk, which is central to the justification for the policy and its application across the public services, and uncertainty, which underlies the role of the state. The paper argues that the rhetorical support for PFI rests on a conflation of risk and uncertainty and that PFI leads to contractual arrangements that are inappropriate for the provision of public services over the medium term.     

An analysis of the value of cash flow statements of New Zealand pension schemes

Superannuation (pension, retirement) schemes (plans) are required to report their earnings on a fair-value basis, reflecting recent shifts toward fair-value reporting in financial reporting. Fair-value earnings of such schemes include realised earnings and unrealised changes in values of assets and liabilities (unrealised earnings). This study examines the relation between components of fair-value earnings (realised and unrealised) and cash flows of 161 New Zealand defined benefit schemes for the financial year 1998. The findings of the study include that realised earnings are negatively associated with unrealised earnings and positively associated with cash flows from operations, but no association is found between unrealised earnings and cash flows from operations. This suggests that fair-value reporting has reduced the informational disparity between realised earnings and operating cash flows and therefore the reporting of cash flows information may not provide users with different information from reported in realised earnings. However, the results suggest that unrealised earnings provide additional information to users.     

NHS CAPITAL INVESTMENT AND PFI: FROM CENTRAL RESPONSIBILITY TO LOCAL AFFORDABILITY

At its inception, the NHS was structured as a public corporation, which owned its hospitals. Sixty years on, hospitals are business units or Trusts, which are responsible for capital investment in a local region. The Private Finance Initiative (PFI) has become the predominant mode of financing new hospitals. This paper's purpose is to review the impact of PFI. A literature review traces the various stages of the NHS' hospital investment programme and the research method is a case study. The findings show that PFI is leading to additional costs and complexity that make the achievement of the NHS's objectives difficult.     

UNIT TRUSTS, HOMOGENEOUS BELIEFS AND THE SEPARATION PROPERTY: A NOTE

A recent paper in this journal by J.R. White (1981) provides some evidence on the homogeneity of beliefs of unit trust managers and concludes that 'Unit trusts are well informed about the market and process information efficiently.' This note provides some additional evidence on the beliefs of unit trust managers based on a larger sample of trusts embracing different years and a number of objectives. It suggests that White's arguments are not conclusive at the theoretical level and not substantiated by the empirical evidence.